2.1 NPOs as publicly players
2.1.3 NPOs in a western society
2.1.3.1 NPOs around the globe
When talking about NPOs as sectoral entities, one must have in mind that there is, as discussed in Section 2.1.1, a dependency between such organisations and the public, the government, and other economic entities. It is assumable that an NPO which is established and run within a certain country, is determined by the cultural and sociological background of that country. However, every nonprofit organisation that acts within a certain country is usually rooted in the legal, social, and cultural system of this particular society (Neumann, 2005, p. 71). This applies to every organisation whether it is operating in the field of welfare, culture, politics, or lobbying. This fact is fundamental to understanding the relevance of an
organisation’s sociocultural imprint and its organisational behaviour within its sociological environment, but also if it is operating abroad.
A societal system within a country is biased by historical events, political systems, and influenced by the government. Among others, Encarnación (2003, p.
59; Gensicke, 2009, p. 17) note that a totalitarian system of government prevents the emergence of civic organisations while in turn an open society offers a good basis to develop civic movements. Their finding is that a political change to an open society does not necessarily mean an immediate rise of civic movement. This has been observed in recent years in the post‐soviet era in East Germany in the 1990s as well as in Spain in the post‐Franco era in the mid 1970’s. In terms of Spain, Encarnación (2003, p. 48) wonders that ‘more than two decades after the passing of Franco the fraction of the public identifying with a political party of any stripe stand at about the same level as in Eastern Europe after the fall of Communism. Civic anemia appears to be endemic in Spain’. He bases this on the World Values Survey, which from his point of view saw Spain be ‘one of the least‐prone nations to generate the kind of associational life attached to vibrant and robust civil societies […] among the 43 nations included in the survey, only Argentina had a lower rate of participation by the citizenry in 16 different types of voluntary associations generally thought to represent civil society in Spain’ (Encarnación, 2003, p. 48). The same result was found in a study conducted by Maloney and Roßteutscher (2009b, p. 47): ‘in all cities [Mannheim, Bern, Aberdeen, Enschede, Aalborg – editors note], roughly 30 per cent of the total population do volunteer work. This final experiment also reveals the unique position of Sabadell where [...] active engagement concerns only a minority of the population (9 per cent in the case of volunteering and a small majority of 53 per cent in the case of activism)’. They conclude that a ‘low associative penetration of the Spanish city is evident in almost all categories of involvement [...]. In the Spanish city there is no culture of volunteering’ (Maloney and Roßteutscher, 2009b, p. 47). Moreover, Encarnación (2003, p. 49) cites a report by McDonough, Barnes, and López Pina where the ‘puzzle of participation in Spain’ come up: ‘The authors observe that while democratic procedures have been solidly institutionalized in Spain, civic engagement has stagnated’. The reasons certainly are diverse, however, Encarnación (2003, p. 57) points to two relevant details with Spanish society: ‘Spanish unemployment soared from 415,000 in 1977 to nearly 2 million by 1985, and among the contributing causes for this crisis was a program of industrial
restructuring that gutted many of the state enterprises that Franco had created with the purpose of achieving full employment’. Another reason is given by Linz (2008, p. 365) in relation to Spain’s economy. He concludes that the country fails to generate social movements because of its economic backwardness, especially with industrialisation in comparison to other western countries like the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. As a result of the profound labour market crisis, poverty in Spain has increased considerably. Between 2009 and 2013, the at‐risk‐of‐
poverty rate for the whole population increased from 17.3 per cent to 18.7 per cent (ILO, 2014, p. 31).
To sum up, the number of NPOs within a specific country not necessarily need‐based but is dependently of a political system and wealth of a nation.
2.1.3.2 Specific issues in Germany
The situation of NPOs in the “old” federal states of Germany is very vibrant sinc many years. It is, however, interesting to take a deeper look at the nonprofit sector of East Germany, a part of Germany and formerly the independent socialist German Democratic Republic (GDR). After dramatic political changes towards an open and democratic society and furthermore, merging with West Germany in the beginning of the 1990s, the starting point for the people was as difficult as it was for the people in Spain in the post‐Franco era. As in Spain, unemployment became a major problem. In fact, some felt neglected by the government, and realise years later that the fall of socialist government was more paralysing than stimulatory.
Furthermore, they could not adjust to the changes that have occurred. This is why they declined voluntary participation with organisations (Gensicke, 2009, p. 18).
Far more than this, they did not realise that there is a need to engage in social, sociological, and the cultural sector due to the fact that these areas was part of the scope of the socialist government even though this support almost abruptly was cut off (Gensicke, 2009, pp. 158–159). This has recently changed. Gensicke indicates through interviews that there is a pride in how they could manage the change from having a sense of entitlement to one of self‐participation. Priller and Zimmer (2000, pp. 9–10) note that this is reflected in the number of organisations established from 1990. Even though there is visible saturation in this case, the diversified landscape
of organisations is still increasing. It must be emphasised that most of these nonprofits have been founded in Germany’s post‐reunification period.
Finally, the key to success is apparently not only an open society. Indeed, it depends on the surroundings of an organisation. Hence, the next section will discuss the influence of an organisation’s environment in terms of win or lose importance within a society.