2.2 NPOs as economic entities
2.2.3 Relevance of assets for NPOs
obligations’ (IAS Plus, 2014b). This restrictive aspect does not reflect the usual sociological, economical, and political understanding of intangibles. Hence, the focus on intangibles in this dissertation lies on a more broad and economic perspective as discussed hereafter
Lev (2001, p. 5) states on intangible assets, that they are ‘a claim to future benefits’. He notes as a further characteristic on intangibles a physical absence, hence, a lack of embodiment. According to Lev all immaterial assets ‘that generate cost savings are intangible’. This could be suitable for a brand, a patent, and in some cases organisational structure. McClure (2010) mentions that despite the lack of tangibility an intangible ‘can prove very valuable for a firm and can be critical to its long‐
term success or failure’. Another characteristic of intangible assets is a nonrival deployment. Indeed, such assets can be used at different places and by different users at the same time. The advantage of multi‐use ‘does not detract from the usefulness of the asset in other deployments’ (Lev, 2001, p. 22). However, the multi‐use character implies a negative side‐effect: ‘nonowners can rarely be perfectly excluded from sharing the benefits of intangibles’ (Lev, 2001, p. 37). In other words, nonowners are probably in the position to make use of the asset and earn benefit of an item which is not in their possession, thus, Lev suggests that ‘nonexcludability gives rise to spillovers’ (Lev, 2001, p. 37). He further points out to the operational costs of intangibles, where ‘many intangible inputs have zero or negligible opportunity costs’.
However, the advantage lies in their high potential for operations. An analysis done on Research & Development in the chemical industry turned out that ‘one Dollar invested […] returns two Dollar operating income’ (Lev, 2001, p. 53).
With respect to strategic relevance of intangible assets, Kaplan and Norton (2004, p. 211) suggest measuring their value ‘not by how much it costs to create them or how much they are worth on a freestanding basis’. In fact, they suggest focusing on
‘how well they align to the strategic priorities of the enterprise’.
Figure 11: Framework for measuring intangible assets of for‐profit‐organisations (Kaplan and Norton, 2004, p. 212)
Furthermore, Kaplan and Norton (2004, pp. 211–213) point to a constraint with the power of value creation of intangibles. For this, they introduce the relation of intangibles and tangibles through the strategy of a company, as shown in Figure 11, and they conclude that intangibles ‘get converted into cash’. Moreover, they
‘introduce the concept of strategic readiness’. Therefore, the intangibles become drivers of the strategy: ‘the higher the state of readiness, the faster intangible assets contribute to generating cash’. Thus, the role of intangibles is currently accepted for value creation and as value drivers for companies (Guenther, 2014, p. 4).
In short, intangibles are mandatory for generating cash, regardless of which business is being run and what objectives have to be fulfilled.
2.2.3.3 NPOs and intangible assets
The question of how strongly NPOs’ success is linked to intangible assets needs to be evaluated. In general, nonprofit‐organisations do not only generate cash by selling goods and providing services. Littich and Schober (2013, pp. 301–
302) distinguish between mission‐based and non‐mission‐based earnings: mission‐
based earnings are membership fees, donations of any kind, tax deductions, contributions through Corporate Social Responsibility activities by economic entities, and dividend payouts, to name a few. Littich and Schober call suggest non‐
mission‐based earnings such as interest rates, leasing receipts, dividends, and earning from commercial activities. Following this, it becomes obvious that NPOs not only rely on tangibles, but also on intangibles to run their businesses.
Among others, Pike et al. (2005, p. 111), who have conducted research on the business aspect of Research & Development (R&D), conclude that intangible assets are strongly required for target achievement of service‐driven companies. Neubert and Skaanes (2016, p. 11) identify most Swiss NPOs as service companies, which on average report a balance sheet total of about 94% on financial assets. In turn, about only 6% of assets held by NPOs are fixed and current assets. Domański (2009, p. 86) proposes that intangible assets are key to the success of service companies like nonprofits. He also refers to Ashton (2005), who ‘examines intangible value and its ties to financial outcomes’ (Domański, 2009, p. 86) of FPOs: ‘the most important assets, i.e. those giving the organization a competitive edge, are the ones that meet the following four criteria: they should be valuable, rare, inimitable and the organization must be organized to deploy these resources effectively’ (Domański, 2009, p. 86). He summarizes that ‘since these assets play such an important role in a modern organization they cannot be disregarded as a component of the value of the whole enterprise. The company’s managers should be both aware of the existence of these intangible assets as well as possess the knowledge regarding their current value. The value of intangible assets is becoming one of the management parameters and manager in the non‐profit organizations should focus their activities on it’.
In short, NPOs require both tangibles as well as intangibles to provide products and services. However, as an important finding which will be return later on in Chapter 4.2.2, a key for value creation is mainly on intangibles for nonprofits’
success. To be more specific, ‘the nonrivalry [...] attribute of intangibles [...] is a major value driver at the business enterprise level as well as the national level’ (Lev, 2001, p. 23).
In other words, intangible assets are commonly the key value driver for nonprofits.