Las Ciencias de lo Artificial como “Ciencias de Diseño”

offers a greater prospect of affecting organisational success during turbulent periods of change. In contrast to the transactional approach, the transformational approach can result in the follower achieving more than expected. Bass identifies three ways in which followers are influenced. First, the individual follower's level of consciousness regarding the importance and value of desired outcomes is raised. Second, followers are convinced to transcend their self-interests in order to benefit the organisation. Third, the individual follower's need level (on Maslow's hierarchy) is raised; for example, from the need for security to the need for recognition (Bass 1 985:3 1 ).

Bass completed research with staff at various levels in industrial and military organisations and initially identified five leadership factors - later increased to seven - that form the foundation of his model of transformational leadership. He grouped these factors in line with the conceptual division between transactional and transformational leadership. The transactional factors are : (a) "Contingent Reward", the exchange process between leader and follower involving the use of incentives and rewards to obtain follower motivation; (b) "Management by Exception", where the leader either actively monitors follower performance to identify deviations and then takes corrective action, or intervenes only i f standards are not achieved (passive); and (c), introduced i n a revision to the model, a factor labeled "Laissez-Faire" which is characterised by the leader's abdication of responsibility (Bass 1 990:22). The transformational factors identified are: (a) "Charismatic Leadership", the most important component of the transformational model, which results in increased follower enthusiasm, faith, loyalty, pride and self-confidence; (b) "Individualised Consideration", evidenced through the leader sustaining a developmental and individualistic orientation towards followers, communicating openly, and acting as a role model and mentor to followers; (c) "Intellectual Stimulation", where a leader enhances the followers' problem-solving capabilities: and (d), introduced in his revised model, a factor labelled "Inspiration", characterised by the communication of high expectations, the use of symbols to focus follower effort and the uncomplicated expression of significant objectives (Bass 1 990:22).

Bass noted a higher correlation between unit effectiveness and the transformational factors.

In comparison with transactional leaders, transformational leaders were characterised as being proactive, creative and innovative (Bass 1 985:33-38; Bass 1 990:23).

The concept of moral leadership was also introduced by Bass (drawing on the position articulated earlier by Burns 1 978). He argued that the moral transformational leader will subscribe to universal ethical principles such as respect for human dignity and equal rights. He contended that organisational well-being will be enhanced by moral leadership and that leaders should be guided by an ethical code (Bass 1 98 5 : 38-39). Bass finally suggested that, since transformational leadership practices can be identified, measured and learned, they should be incorporated in human resource programmes (managerial assessment, selection) and in management training and development (Bass 1 990:26-27).

It was noted above that charismatic leadership can be regarded as part of the broader concept of transformational leadership. House ( 1 977) developed a theory of charismatic leadership which, Yukl ( 1 998) observes, is more comprehensive than many earlier theories because of the inclusion of leader traits, behaviour, influence and situational conditions. House identified the following characteristics of charismatic leaders: (a) they typically exhibit a need for power, high self-confidence and conviction in their own beliefs and ideals; (b) they are likely to try to create the impression that they are competent; ( c) they will articulate ideological goals and link the mission of the organisation to deep-seated values and ideals shared by followers; (d) they will act as positive role models; and ( e) they will communicate high expectations to followers, while also expressing confidence in the followers ' abilities (Yukl 1 998:299; Northouse 1 997: 1 32).

The characteristics proposed by House are also identified by Parry in a discussion of what has been labeled the "new leadership", which includes transformational, charismatic and visionary leadership. Parry ( 1 999: 1 47) suggests that charismatic leaders communicate high expectations to followers and arouse in followers affiliation and achievement motivation. Similarly, De Vries, et al. ( 1 994:76) suggested that charismatic leaders "envision, empower, and energise in order to motivate followers". Overall, the charismatic perspective

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places emphasis upon the leader's ability to communicate, proj ect confidence, act as a role model and to tap into the underlying values held by followers at an emotional level in order to develop follower motivation. Charismatic theories provide an explanation for the exceptional influence some leaders have on followers, recognise the importance of followers' emotional reactions to leaders, and note the importance of symbolic behaviour and the role of the leader in creating meaning for followers.

What is the utility of the transformational perspective? The distinction that has been drawn between transactional and transformational processes adds a measure of conceptual clarity. However, it should be noted that these groupings are not mutually exclusive, with leaders exhibiting various "mixes" of both transactional and transformational behaviours. The balance of "mixes" is dependent upon a range of factors including the characteristics of the leader and followers, and various contextual or situational influences.

Leadership, Organisational Vision and Values

In Chapter One, it was suggested that: tension exists between managerial and professional belief systems in the Probation Service; that the organisational goals and values of the Probation Service have been redefined by senior managers; and that the latter definition may be at variance with those held by Probation Officers and Service Managers. Against this background, the focus of this section is to consider the relationship that might exist between organisational vision, values and leadership.

Cohn ( 1 998), drawing upon the work of CoIl ins and Porras ( 1 996), suggests that the future vision of an organisation rests upon two key components: first, a core ideology, which is composed of a set of core values (with associated principles and tenets); and second, a core purpose, the organisation's most fundamental reason for continuing its business. If we proceed with the suggestion that organisational vision is based in part upon a set of core values, then what is the role of leadership in developing and promoting both vision and values? A clear consensus emerges from commentators that in order to be effective,

leaders must recognise and actively promote the connection between vision and values. The enunciation of a clear future vision will both provide direction for organisational development and serve as a focus for staff (Vemon and Byrd 1 996:22). Visionary leadership rests upon the leader's capacity to communicate a vision of the future for the organisation and to actively engage followers to act in order to achieve that vision. A compelling vision will be based upon deeply held beliefs regarding the core purpose of the organisation that are accepted by most organisational members (Parry 1 999: 1 48; Fairholm 1 998:69). Obviously, the statement of core purpose must be inspirational if it is to engage and motivate followers to act in order to achieve the goals of the organisation (De Vries et al. 1 994 :74). A values-based leadership perspective represents a philosophical model; values serve as standards to guide actions and define what is acceptable; they also act as latent influences on the behaviour of the individual. The values-based leadership approach seeks to link leader and follower through the articulation of a set of common values (Fairholm 1 998:56; Pawar et al. 1 997).

Staff commitment to an organisational vision via visionary, values-based leadership is more likely to be achieved when there is alignment between organisational values and those held by constituent professional staff (Vantour 1 99 1 :52). This congruence is not only essential to the development of staff commitment to an organisational vision but is also likely to exert a significant influence upon staff perfonnance in tenns of effective service delivery. Going one step further, Turem ( 1 986: 1 5) suggests that in order for management goals (and therefore policies) to be accepted as valid, the goals (as an expression of the organisation 's core purpose) should also be congruent with the professional values of staff that are expected to implement the goals.

Leading Professionals

In Chapter One it was noted that the organisational structure of the Probation Service has changed from a professional model (in which management positions had typically been held by professional Probation Officers and where Probation Officers were able to exercise

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considerable practice autonomy) to a new management model (that has seen the advent of the generic manager, streamlined management structures, prescriptive practice regimes and an emphasis upon control and reporting on service delivery). A substantive argument regarding the nature of leadership in the Probation Service is that it should support and facilitate professional practice. The type of leadership that is most likely to be effective in influencing the performance of Probation Officers to achieve effective service delivery is central to the current enquiry.

In this section, discussion will focus upon the provision of leadership to Probation Officers based upon the construction of probation practice as a profession. First, the characteristics that are associated with professionals are considered. Then follows a review of issues surrounding the leading and managing of professionals within organisations. Finally, strategies for managing professionals that could be applied within the Probation Service are presented.

What is a Professional?

A profession may be defined as an occupation requiring special training, and as the body of people in such an occupation. The term professional refers to a person engaged in a profession, and there is also a connotation of the professional being competent in the tasks associated with the profession.

The demonstration of expertise, based upon specialist education, training and skills, presents as a core characteristic of a professional. This expertise is applied in a reflexive manner that enables professionals to continuously develop their knowledge and skills and to complete work tasks that require judgement and creativity (Anderson 1 997; Beneviste

1 987; Raelin 1 992). Professionals have traditionally enjoyed a high level of operational autonomy that includes discretion in designing and carrying out tasks (Beneviste 1 987;

Dawson 1 994). In the social service practice context, it is the professional who is closest to the client and should have sufficient autonomy to meet the client's needs (Raelin 1 9 89).

The question of autonomy and accountability is addressed by Mintzberg ( 1 998) who observes that most professional workers require little direct supervision from managers. A professional typically demonstrates commitment to a profession through membership of a formal association that: controls entry to the profession; and sets and enforces standards of accreditation, training and conduct through registration procedures and a code of ethics. The right to operational independence should be matched by a professional 's obligation to demonstrate performance accountability (that includes self-regulation and self-discipline) (Anderson 1 997; Raelin 1 985). Professionals are also expected to serve the public good and to demonstrate a calling and commitment that extends beyond economic incentives (Beneviste 1 987; Raelin 1 985, 1 992).

Leadership of Professionals in Organisations

In the Probation Service practice environment the tenets of managerial ism have challenged and eroded the levels of professional autonomy that have previously been exercised by Probation Officers. Von Glinow ( 1 988) asserts that professionals are predisposed to resist organisational control and identifies a set of critical tension points that commonly arise for professionals within organisations. In Table 4 the requirements that are typically expected of employees within organisations are juxtaposed against a set of typical expectations held by professionals who might be employed in an organisation.

Table 4 -Potential Tensions for Professionals in Organisations

Organisational requirements Professional expectations

• Hierarchical/organisational control • Expert evaluation and control • Rules of the organisation • Professional standards • Organisational secrecy • Dissemination of information

• Organisational loyalty • Commitment to the field

Adapted from von Glinow ( 1 988)

A central concern for professionals surrounds the manner in which management exercises control. Managers act as the agents of stakeholders (who control the strategic direction and resourcing of the organisation) and have the responsibility of co-ordinating the activities

1 1 7 required to achieve the goals of the organisation (Dawson 1 994; Raelin 1 992). While professionals will generally accept that essential activities must be managed if they are to be supported in their work, they will object to process constraints (for example, prescriptive technical instructions regarding process steps) that negatively affect their capacity to exercise professional autonomy in service delivery. In organisations where professionals have been unable to retain autonomy regarding the content and process of service delivery, the managerial presence tends to be stronger.

The tension that emanates from the conflict between the professional and b,ureaucratic modes of working is likely to have a foundation in differences that exist between professional and managerial values and belief systems (Raelin 1 992). In situations where non-professional managers are required to exercise a leadership role with professional staff, they may lack sufficient credibility to be able to do so effectively. In such circumstances, the professionals are likely to regard peer assessment and endorsement more highly than approval by management (Anderson 1 997; Raelin 1 992).

Strategies for Managing Professionals

The core characteristics of professionals (i.e. their expertise, operational autonomy and accountability) suggest that most professional workers require little direct supervision from managers. It is the culture of the profession itself that will to a considerable degree enable organisational service delivery goals to be met. This culture needs to be channelled and enhanced rather than created by leadership from managers (Mintzberg 1 998 : 1 45). Shapero observes that management must be aware of the differences between managing professionals and the management relevant to the assembly line if they are to optimise the professional 's performance potential (Shapero 1 985 :23). In other words, the manager should be responsible for creating the conditions within which the professional can work effectively.

Four strategies can serve to align the professional within the structure of an organisation. The first involves the promotion of professionals to management roles. This strategy has

two distinct benefits: (a) it avoids probable resistance to direct supervision from non­ professional managers; and (b) the 'professional' manager is able to relate to the body of knowledge shared by the staff (Anderson 1997). A second strategy concerns situations where there are non-professional managers and where use is made of professional peer supervision and mentorship to ensure that professionals are supported and evaluated by those who understand their work. A third strategy involves staff, not in management positions but who possess expert knowledge and genuine commitment, assuming a professional leadership role to accomplish service delivery goals (Raelin 1989). Finally, there is the strategy of covert leadership (Mintzberg 1998) which refers to situations where leadership is provided by a manager who is also a member of the profession. The 'covert' style of leadership is unobtrusive and not overtly identifiable; the leader orchestrates rather than directs, leads by example and the leader's professional expertise underpins and infuses all of hislher actions (Mintzberg 1998 : 14 1- 144). This concept of covert leadership draws upon the characteristics and behaviours that Goleman ( 1998) labels as "emotional intelligence"; namely, self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill. Emotional intelligence can be observed through a range of competencies such as the ability to work with others and effectiveness in leading change. Goleman's ( 1998) fmdings suggest that emotional intelligence is twice as important as technical skills or cognitive abilities in relation to achieving organisational results. Professional workers are more likely to be inspired by leaders who treat them with respect and trust, and not as detachable "human resources" (Mintzberg 1998: 145).

Conclusion

Leadership is usually defined by researchers according to their individual perspective and the aspects of leadership that are of most interest to them. Consequently, they will investigate different phenomena and will interpret research results in accord with their perspective (Yukl 1998:2-3). In undertaking research involving leadership it is important, therefore, that the researcher should not rely exclusively on a priori assumptions and should retain an open mind regarding which constructs are likely to be of the greatest utility.

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In this chapter leadership has been examined from five different angles, each contributing to our understanding. Drawing upon the ideas presented in the preceding pages the following key points regarding leadership are proposed as a framework that can be used to inform both research design and data analysis.

First, leadership involves the relationship between a leader and follower or (more typically in an organisation) a group of followers, which rests on an interactive process that involves the leader's use of influence or persuasion in the pursuit of organisational goals and objectives. The creation of a team environment and the empowerment of followers impress as relevant criteria to gauge the impact of leadership, while the differentiation between types of power and the relationship between the use of power and follower reactions (commitment, compliance and resistance) are useful for examining the perspectives of participants involved in the research for this study.

Second, a distinction can be made between management and leadership in relation to tasks, roles and behaviours. However, although management has an emphasis upon planning, control and results, while leadership focuses upon people, process, vision, values and direction, it is more useful to conceive of leadership and management as overlapping constructs rather than as mutually exclusive processes. For the present study, the trait and behavioural perspectives offer a framework for consideration of the responses of research participants regarding their understanding of the characteristics and behaviours associated with effective leadership. In particular, the distinction between task behaviours (that focus on goal achievement) and relationship behaviours (that demonstrate respect, and focus on the development of trust) appears to be particularly useful when considering leadership in a social service agency such as the Probation Service. The point at issue here, as suggested in this review of leadership research, is that leadership which places emphasis on coaching, teaching and modelling, is more likely to generate follower commitment than an approach reliant on controlling and supervision.

Third, situational leadership theory posits the existence of an interrelationship between

personal characteristics, environmental influences and current organisational strategies). A critical assumption of the situational approach is the need for flexible and adaptive leadership; leaders need to understand that different situations require different types of leadership, and the needs of followers are liable to change. This assumption, and the understanding required of leaders, is salient to the analysis and interpretation of the views and experiences of research participants in an organisation subject to powerful forces of change. Indeed, the explanatory capacity of the transformational perspective is of particular relevance here, as is charismatic leadership theory, which provides a set of assumptions against which leadership in the Probation Service can be assessed.

Fourth, the willingness of followers to accept leadership direction is likely to be related to the degree of follower motivation and understanding, and the level of value congruence between leader and follower. The creation of willing following was thought to be related to the promotion of achievable goals, notably goals of mutual benefit to leader and follower. That said, it is important to remember that a values-based leadership approach seeks to link leader and follower through the articulation of a set of common values. In light of the construction of practice as a professional enterprise, the degree of values congruence that