las imágenes estructural y rizomática
1.1 La base teórica de la imagen estructural
1.1.1 La forma sin sustancia de Saussure
Innovation represents the creation of new ideas and processes that generate some form
of improvement. Intrinsic to innovativeness is newness and betterment of something or
often, somehow. Innovation in construction exists across a number of areas from new
methods, knowledge transfer, sustainability, organisational culture, collaboration, BIM,
standardisation and beyond. An innovation can focus on new ideas and products, or the
alignment of processes, procedures and activities within the delivery chain to achieve
increased profitability, productivity, reliability, quality, safety and ultimately, efficiency.
It can also centre purely within the organisation. Innovation can affect all elements of
the supply chain, from the use of contracts through to the types of relationships
expected between certain parts of the delivery chain. Inherently concerned with
improvement through either new things, or doing things differently, innovation is not
limited to co‐developed project level solutions in an often fragmented industry, but can
be influenced in a more strategic manner to influence the wider industry.
Innovation as part of a strategic approach?
Stewart and Fenn (2006) recognise that innovation in the construction industry exists
across three strands of (1) the product, (2) the process and (3) the organisation, while
Aouad et al. (2010) raise concern that construction innovation is limited to the project
due to the fragmented and project based nature of the wider industry. Akintoye et al.
(2012) present that innovation in the construction industry can be construed as the
successful development and / or implementation of new ideas, products, process or
practices, generally with the aim of increasing organisational efficiency and / or
performance.
Thus, innovation extends beyond the singular project and the formation and close‐down
of such intrinsically one‐off activities. Thinking strategically about innovation is about the
restructuring of supply chains around new ideas, processes and organisational
Townsend, 1998), the management of change and cultural attitudes (Liu and Fellows,
2012), the adoption of ideas, products and processes (Rogers, 1995), understanding the
novelty of such innovations (OECD, 2005) and the value of supply chain integration to
leverage (and develop) more appropriate procurement forms (Akintoye and Main, 2012)
and more.
What constitutes a strategic approach to Innovation?
An underlying assumption of what constitutes innovation is the work of Joseph
Schumpeter (1934) who argued that economic progression is driven by processes
through which new technologies replace old (via creative destruction). Schumpeter
presented that more radical innovations affect major disruptive changes, while
incremental innovations are concerned more with continually advancing the process of
change (OECD, 2005). Schumpeter (1934) proposed a list of innovation typologies as:
• The introduction of new products;
• The introduction of new methods of production;
• The opening of new markets;
• The development of new sources of supply for raw materials or other inputs; and
• The creation of new market structures in an industry.
Deciding to innovate often takes place under great uncertainty, with firms choosing to
act as innovative 'followers' (to keep up with innovative competitors), or to act as
proactive innovators into the 'unknown', creating new delivery environments
themselves dependant on their position within the innovation adoption curve (Rogers,
1995). Organisational innovation literature has focused on organisational structures,
learning processes, adaptation to changes in technology and the environment
(institutions and markets) (OECD, 2005). The reason for such differentiation and
delineation here, is that market positioning and value creation through innovation
requires specific forms of procurement and delivery relationships to be formed.
Specifically, for an organisation to want to influence its market place and be a leader in
required (Akintoye and Main, 2012). Contrastingly, should an organisation have no
desire to use its buying power to leverage knowledge and skills from the market place
with a view to creativity stagnation, then it can merely place single, transactional,
traditional spot contracts and be at the mercy of external market forces, regardless of
buying power. In being strategic to maximize value creation Blayse and Manley (2004)
identify factors that influence construction sector innovation as:
• Clients and manufacturers;
• The structure of production;
• Relationships between individuals and firms within the industry;
• Relations between the industry and external parties;
• Procurement systems regulations / standards; and
• The nature and quality of organisational resources.
Efficiencies in the management of infrastructure are seen to be around the creation of
feasible competition, the facilitation of responsibility, the enhancement of stakeholder
groups and the removal of bureaucracy type structures towards a more business type
model (World Bank, 1994). In effect, the creation of a platform for the delivery of
infrastructure services that respond to intended focus groups, drives value and
innovation via competition. Consequently suffering from the competitive strains of
business in order to be an effective tool for economic growth, innovation (or more
precisely, being as innovative as possible) drives the need to assess one's markets and
programmes of work to find the most suitable and sustainable solutions to meet
strategic business needs. Egmond (2012) identifies that innovation and sustainability in
construction need balance a range of competing factors, inclusive of performance
metrics, capability drivers and competence building.
Gann and Salter (2010) identify clients as the driving force behind innovation in
construction value chains, with Barlow and Jashpara (1998) suggesting that collaborative
links between firms enhances organisational learning and more innovative practice. It
should be noted however that if clients wish to be change agents, they should be aware
chain actors, and that organisational barriers to innovation can be perceived
attitudinally, industrially, and institutionally. Panuwatwanich et al. (2008) suggest that
an innovative culture (via leader selection) can contribute towards the creation of
competitive advantage, with Akintoye and Main (2012) highlighting that procurement on
a project by project basis can throttle innovation due to a lack of security (of supply),
continuity and longer term relational working practices not allowing the development of
both skills and research. This inherently links the development of innovative practices
with the foundational principles of a strategic approach.