El potencial ético y educativo del emergentismo de K Popper

From a scientific point of view, quantifying the perceptions of the threat of cor- ruption remains vague but in real life it has a huge impact on society, the econ- omy, public institutions and politics. In other words, corruption is relevant for the whole internal security situation, particularly of a country like BiH. One cause of the social and anti-government unrest in February 2014 was the expression of the public’s disappointment and dissatisfaction with the poor and corrupted state administration and reluctance of political elites to fight this problem. How this corruption is experienced in BiH and how it can be per- ceived as a threat will be shown by using the data published in the UNODC Report 2011.106 _{Since the date were generated by UNODC experts, the situation}

in the country has not improved. In 2013, the level of corruption in the country assessed and compared by Transparency International by its Corruption Per- ceptions Index, ranked BiH number 72 out of 177 countries but in 2014 it slid down to 80th _place.107 _{This runs contrary to the expected development in line}

with the EU accession conditions and EU enlargement process which keeps the fight against corruption high on the agenda.

The UNODC stated that at least 20 % of citizens experienced corruption in the last 12 months in person or through a household member.108 _{It means in abso-}

lute numbers that approximately 740,000 citizens of BiH directly experienced corruption.109 _{The trend shows that bribery prevailed with 25.5% more in the}

decentralised FBiH (making up approx. 600,000 citizens)110 _{than in the entity}

of Republika Srpska with 10.5% (approx. 140,000 citizens).111 _{The UNODC states}

that the average amount of each bribe was around 112 euros and most of these

106 _{Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bribery as Experienced by the Population, UNODC}

2011, https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/corruption/Bosnia_ corruption_report_web.pdf

107 _{F. Bosso, Bosnia and Herzegovina, an Overview of Political Corruption, Transparency Inter-}

national, http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/answer/bosnia_and_herzegovina_ overview_of_political_corruption

108 _{Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina, op. cit., p. 7.} 109 _{Calculation by authors based on UNODC data.} 110 _{Calculation by authors based on UNODC data.} 111 _{Calculation by authors based on UNODC data.}

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bribes were given in cash (80%), however other forms can also include food and drink.112 _{The fact that 52% of the bribes were given to the police is dramatic.}113

Statistically 33 million euros were illegally taken from citizens by corrupt po- lice officers.114

The level of corruption in the country is influenced both by political and eco- nomic factors. The legacy of war in 1990s in the form of Dayton Peace Agreement created a complex and opaque institutional settings with many horizontal and vertical administrative layers. This offers many opportunities for bribery in society. The advanced decentralisation of political and economic power results in the involvement and influence of corrupt officials. Local governments are responsible for fiscal and economic policies to such an extent that it under- mines the state’s ability to set up strategies.115 _{Another obstacle that contrib-}

utes to the complicated situation with unemployment and corruption in the country is the incomplete transition from the planned economy in Communist Yugoslav to a neo-liberal market economy, labour market liberalisation, rapid privatisation and post-war aid dependence.116

In addition, deep-rooted ethnic tensions and distrust in politics, as well as a lack of transparency, cultivates the environment in which it is difficult to effectively implement any kind of anti-corruption laws, even the recent ones adopted under pressure from the European Union. Moreover, the division along the ethnic lines in the political parties and in public is so striking and strong that it even runs through private businesses, companies and industries accordingly, starting from energy suppliers to telecommunications service providers and many more. In line with this, in order to get certain types of jobs young people are often directly or indirectly forced to take sides.

According to the European Commission’s Progress Report 2014 the fight against widespread corruption that bears an impact on so many areas is very slow and ineffective, particularly as some implicated high-level figures manage

112 _{Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina, op. cit., p. 7.} 113 _{Ibidem, p. 4.}

114 _{Calculation by authors based on UNODC data.}

115 _{B. Divjak, M. Pugh The Political Economy of Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Interna-}

tional Peacekeeping, Special Issue: Post-conflict Peacebuilding and Corruption, Volume 15, Issue 3, 2008, http://www.gsdrc.org/document-library/the-political-economy-of-corrup- tion-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina/

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to successfully avoid prosecution and are reluctant to tackle this problem.117

The most acutely affected sectors in society include public administration on higher and lower levels, law enforcement, the judiciary and public procure- ment and also healthcare, access to employment and the educational system. Not even foreign financial aid is excluded.118 _{The international actors and the}

highest but disputed executive authority, the Office of the High Representative, are unable to prevent the corruption in the disbursal of grants and loans and to ensure transparency. In addition, their presence and influence in the country only contributes to the continuation of dependency syndrome and slows the process of local ownership development.119

Another factor affecting corruption is the seeming impunity, the low penalties for corruption and the slow and ineffective prosecutions of cases. This gives the public the wrong perception of the act as being something natural and common and increases the impression that being caught or prosecuted is un- likely. Moreover, the willingness of society to report corruption in the country also remains very low.120

Corruption affects the stability of the political and economic system and the already low confidence and dissatisfaction with politics, public administration services and other key areas. According to the Transparency International Global Corruption Barometer 2013, respondents in BiH consider politicians to be the most corrupt institutional actors. It also creates unfavourable condi- tions for business development, and drives away new investors and thus hin- ders job creation as one of the few ways to tackle high unemployment and the frustration stemming from this, especially among young people in the coun- try. Moreover, it deepens the inequality and the gap between the poor and rich. This view is largely supported also by more than 60% of respondents in a public survey carried out by the World Bank. The vast majority (approx. 98% of respondents) stated that rising inequality, high level of crimes, endangered

117 _{European Commission Progress Report 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_}

documents/2014/20141008-bosnia-and-herzegovina-progress-report_en.pdf, p. 15.

118 _{M. Chêne, Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), U4 Anti-Cor-}

ruption Research Centre, http://www.u4.no/publications/corruption-and-anti-corruption- in-bosnia-and-herzegovina-bih/#sthash.KHn57CT9.dpuf, p. 2.

119 _{B. Divjak, M. Michael, op. cit.}

120 _{N. Garoupa, D.M. Klerman, Corruption and Private Law Enforcement: Theory and History,}

Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2010, http://law.usc.edu/assets/docs/Klerman_Cor- ruption.pdf, p. 88.

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state security and moral decline in society were among the main crucial con- sequences of corruption.121