Continuidad y sostenibilidad

Ellison Banks Findly

AS THE LATE VEDIC AND classical Sanskrit tradition develops, one of the increasingly central concepts is mantra as "eine 'traditionelle Formel', deren Würde eben darin besteht, dass sie von den Weisen der Vorzeit her überliefert ist" [a 'traditional formula' whose value consists precisely in the fact that the sages of the primeval past have handed it down]

(Thieme 1957b; 68-69). The extended use of this term in later literature, and of the

concept throughout the varieties of the Hindu experience (cf. Gonda 1963b), might lead one to suppose a substantial foundation for mantra in the very early literature. While the philosophic and psychological bases for mantra, in fact, do become well defined in the course of the Rgveda*, and the argument for this will be central to this paper, the term itself is an uncommon, often unclear commodity until well into the Upanisadic* era.1

In the Rgveda* itself, we find twenty-one references to mantra as well as single

references to mantrakrt* and mantrasrutya*.2 Although not confined to the hymns of one deity;3 three quarters of the mantra references are found in Books 1 and 10.

Following the findings of scholars who have investigated the literary strata in the Rgveda* (i.e., Arnold 1905; Belvalkar 1922, 16; Chattopadhyaya 1985, 32; Macdonell, 1900, 34ff.; and Olden-berg 1888, 221-22, 232), I suggest, then, that the development of the term mantra may belong to a younger period of Rgvedic* composition.4

Given this overall paucity of references, one could argue further that mantra is not only a late Rgvedic* concept but, perhaps, an insignificant one as well. Following this line of reasoning, that is, that silence or at least vague and irregular murmurings denotes

inconsequence, however, mantra could be shown to attain prominence only after the other elements of the srauta* system. And this, of course, is not the case. In general, inattention to a term in the Rgveda does not always mean inattention to the corresponding concept. And, in this instance, I will

Page 16

argue, mantra is a development central to Rgvedic * thought, which takes place at a peak period of creativity and which bridges the transition from the earlier, more theistic

sensibilities to the later, increasingly ritualistic concerns.5

While the focus of this paper will be an investigation of how Rgvedic* thinkers

conceived of the term mantra, it cannot be confined only to those places in the text where mantra appears. Rather, the investigation must be expanded to include other

psychological and philosophic contexts, especially those involving ritual speech, which might have given rise to a notion of mantra, particularly as it is kavisasta*, 'pronounced by the seers.' Organizationally, then, I will begin with the descriptive contexts of the word and move backward to what I postulate might have been an earlier phase of Rgvedic*

thought, thereby showing changes that the development of mantra brought about, or reflected, in the early speculations about speech, ritual, and otherwise. While this necessarily means deciphering chronological layers within the .Rgveda, I am less concerned with pronouncing certain hymns or parts of hymns early or late than with tracing briefly those types of changes in Rgvedic* thought that facilitated the rise of the notion of mantra. Proceeding this way, I follow the line of thinking that finds one of the clearest, most retrievable "chronologies" of the Rgveda* to be the development of its religious thought (i.e., Chattopadhyaya 1935, 35; Thieme 1975a, 53).

An underlying concern of this discussion will be that the changes represented by mantra have implications not only for abstractions of Rgvedic* philosophy, but also for

understanding those who composed and uttered the words that proved to be so

efficacious in religious life. If ritual speech is performative speech, as I will argue and as most now understand it, then it behooves me to mention both the theory of how speech operates in the Vedic srauta* system, as is done most commendably later in this volume, and, more importantly for the Rgveda*, those who are speaking (i.e., the priests) and their vision of and relationship with whatever "transcendent other" empowers their speech to be per-formative in the first place. While later mantric material, as used in the developed srauta* system, derives its primary power from its associative role in building layer upon layer of analogy in the complex matrix of the ritual world (Heesterman 1964, 12-14; 1967, 22ff.), early Rgvedic* material, though it also uses analogy albeit in a more rudimentary and clumsy fashion, derives its primary power from the poet's accessibility and eloquent insight into the divine mysteries. The development of the notion of mantra, then, falls late in this period, as those attuned to the changing religious sensibilities moved away from the poetic insight born of the face-to-face contemplation of god to the

complex detailing of the mechanics of ritual.6 We will argue, then, that the term mantra, as developed in the late Rgvedic* era, represents a new view of ritual speech, which is performative and agentive and, perhaps more importantly, a move away from the earlier

focus upon the internal person and

person-Page 17

ality of the priest, whose serf-image and sense of vocational identity were so bound up with his personal skills of eloquence and his feeling of self-worth vis-à-vis god. The new view of speech, which supplants the creatively eloquent insight, is the known formula that, because of its traditional status, would effectively perform in the ritual context.

The Power of Mantra

In his article on bráhman, Thieme raises the question of why there are so many words in the Rgveda * for ritual speech (1952, 101): We find, for instance, dhi*, vac*, mántra, ukthá, stóma, gír and bráhman which variously describe those things which are spoken, sung or heard at the ritual. Thieme argues, and rightly, that the Rgvedic* poets have a clear sense of the meaning of each of these words, never randomly picking from the group but consistently applying the right word to the appropriate situation (1952, 101).

The rightness of a word, he maintains, depends upon what about ritual speech the poets are trying to express: "Der Hymnus heisst hier bráhman, weil er als Formulierung

dichterisch geformt ist, gír, weil er als Lied gesungen, ukthá well er als Rezitation

gesprochen, und mánman, weil er als Inhalt gedacht wird" (The hymn is called bráhman because it is composed as poetic formulation, gír because it is sung as song, ukthá

because it is spoken as recitation, and mánman because it is reflected upon as meaning) (1952, 103). Given the assumption, then, that there are specialized terms for the various aspects of Rgvedic* speech, what aspects are associated with mantra?

In examining those few Rgvedic* passages that mention mantra, one theme stands out clearly: Mantra has power and the source of that power is the truth and order that stands at the very center of the Vedic universe (Gonda 1963b, 257ff.). The pure power

encapsulated in a mantra and released upon its utterance can work for or against whoever uses it. Should the user, or beneficiary, of mantra speak out of spite, malice, or ignorance, the power unleashed by the event can be frightening, harmful, or even fatal. For instance, in the hands of a priest who has been duped out of his sacrificial fee by a niggardly

patron (Geldner 1951, 1.206n), the mantra can prove terrifyingly dangerous:

When, Agni, the malicious, greedy skinflint hurts us [priests] with his duplicity,

let the mantra fall back on him as an oppressive [curse]!

He shall be done in by his own unholy speech. (1.147.4)

Here the mantra, whose negative power derives its very energy and validity from the normative ritual context, as appears to be true for mantra throughout the Rgveda*,7 is used outside the normative ritual context, much like black magic, as revenge against someone who has violated the rules and customs of the ritual by reneging on a contract.

Page 18

The dur° of "unholy speech" (duruktá) gives less a sense of ignorant or foolish speech than the implication of blasphemous and even maliciously intended speech. Mantra, then, sets negative avenging power against speech that, similarly, is intended to do harm.

Moreover, the violator's "duplicity" (dvayá) implies a breach of promise, a setting of false action against true, which flies directly in the face of mantra's close association with the foundation of Rgvedic * thought, rta*.

In a second passage, from a hymn to Mitra and Varuna*, mantra is called raging

(rghavat*), a term normally reserved for the battles and deeds of the Indra context.8 The description of mantra by such a strong word establishes quite clearly both the great

strength of mantra's power and, again, its pursuing and avenging qualities, which can be counted on to carry out the policing commands of the user. That the implicated victims of the mantra are called god-revilers (devaníd) further testifies to mantra's combative, almost sorcerous, abilities against powerfully malicious speech. Indeed, mantra comes to be seen as the most potent weapon, verbal or otherwise, in the on-going warfare among the

varying religious persuasions. Finally, I must note the clear distinction this verse draws between the realms of truth and falsehood. Mantra here and elsewhere, is a martial arm for the policy-making upholders of truth (Renon 1949b, 268-69), empowered to seek out and destroy the hostile pursuers of all that is untrue:

And that much was not known by these [men].

The raging mantra pronounced by the seers is true:

The powerful four-cornered [vájra] slays the three-cornered [weapon of the gods' enemies].

The god-revilers were the first to age. (1.152.2)

Not only does the power of mantra have dearly designed policing powers against Vedic enemies, it also is so highly charged that, unless properly and carefully handled, it can fall back upon and burn its handler. For this reason, the composer of a mantra receives only the highest admiration, even, as here, when that admiration is from the gods:

These [poets] have surpassed all with their skills, who bravely fashioned a choice mantra,

who, most attentive, promoted the clans,

and who took note of this truth of mine. (7.7.6)

Agni praises that poet whose courage is great enough and skill refined enough to create a mantra so true, so fine, that its powerful energy can not possibly turn back on him. A well-made mantra, in fact, will not only not harm the poet but, indeed, serve as an amulet to protect him from all danger. This protection, of course, receives its force from the mantra-maker's ties with the powers that be:

Page 19 Place an ungarbled, well-set and elegant mantra

among the [gods] worthy of worship!

For the many assaults will not overtake him

who has come into Indra's favor by his deeds. (7.32.13)

Pure power, then, whether it be avenging, protective, or even highly potential but

neutralized seems to be at the basis of mantra (Gonda 1941, 287), a conception affirmed in the Atharvaveda 9 and amplified in later literature. The bases of this power, like the power itself, are defined dearly though scantily in the text. From an examination of the passages, it becomes dear that the sources of mantric power are twofold, the first

pertaining to its form and the second to its content, and both are readily accessible to the skilled, initiated seer.

Mantra is empowered, first, by the formal elements of its own composition. In 7.32. 13ab just quoted, mántrarn akharvam* sudhitam* supesasam* dadhata* yajniyesv* a*,

reflects the qualities most prized by poets in their language. "Ungarbled, well-set and elegant" indicate the high standards in use for forms of speech, which once thus

composed are that much more assured of potency in and out of the ritual. Some see here an early reference "to what must have been a sacral poetics" in force (Johnson 1980, 144n) governing the productivity of ancient contests. That there must have been such rules is clear, rules regulating, at least, the general quality of eloquence, if not every detail.

Confirmation of this comes from yet another mantra passage in which speech, in order to effectively extract blessings from the gods, must be both "pleasing" (sambhu*) and

''unrivalled" (anehás), that is, matchless or perfect:

We want to pronounce that mantra at the ceremonies, gods, which is pleasing and unrivalled.

And so the men have willingly taken up this speech that they will attain all riches from you. (1.40.6)

A perfect mantra, here called speech (vac*, 6c), must be so exquisitely rendered that it conforms impeccably, we presume, to rules of poetry such as those suggested by 7.32.13.

This perfect conformation to poetic standards then constitutes the formal structure by which mantra is empowered.

It is empowered, secondly and more consistently in the Rgveda*, by the substantial elements of its truth. Over and over, the poets remind their audience that the power released from the pronunciation and repetition of a mantra is due to the fact that the mantra is true. Mantra's ties to rta*, the transcendent truth of the cosmic and human orders, is dear. In whatever Indra does by his own counsel (mantra), he is truthful (rta-van*) (3.53.8d); all the gods who promote the truth (rtavrdh*) will be favorable if invited to the ritual with mantras (6.50.14cd); and a choice mantra to Agni will necessarily

capture the truth (rta*) known by and essential to

Page 20

the god of fire (7.7.6bd). Mantras, however, are not just in harmony with the truth moving through the cosmos, but are in and of themselves also truthful (satyaá). In securing the spheres of cosmic activity, Agni stayed the heavens with truthful (satyá) mantras (1.67.5); and the mantra that makes known a secret ordinarily hidden from man is true (satyá) (1.152.2b). The power of the mantra, then, depends not only upon well-tended form, but also upon attunement with a metaphysical reality that, for the most part, is separate from man.

This attunement, however, even though it bespeaks a realm normally beyond man, is not brought about by a miraculous display of the divine but by an internal searching in the body's own organ of insight, the heart. Already in the Rgveda *, it has become a

consistent belief that the revelation of ultimate truth is not a matter of extraordinary

experience dependent upon a deus ex machina. The internalization of the revelatory event (that is, the elevation of the self as the material and instrumental cause as well as the

prefigurative result of final wisdom) is a development already well underway in the Rgveda* itself, and one which becomes especially allied with the notion of mantra.

Mantra is true ifand only ifit is formulated with the deepest, most profound understanding possible, that is, with insight arising from the heart (Gonda 1963b, 251-52). And, if it is indeed fashioned from the heart, the theory goes, it will in some way touch upon the riddles of the world in which man lives, giving power over those things that remain mysterious. When well pronounced, a true mantra, then, will hit its mark at all levels of intention:

We would pronounce this mantra well

which was well fashioned for him from the heart; he will understand it, to be sure:

By the power of his Asura-strength,

the lord10 Apam* Napat* created all creatures. (2.35.2)

The mantra of ab, which was well-fashioned (sutasta*) in the heart (hrd*), indicates the truth that is captured in cd: Apam* Napat*, a form of Agni, has given life to all creatures by his light and warmth. This revelation, the humanizing and civilizing aspects of fire, though dearly sparked by external experience, has come to fruition only after internal meditation has been given expression by the self-styled skills of the poet.

Mantras formulated in the heart are true not just because they capture the truth of some cosmological occurrence but because they themselves have participated, and continue to participate, in these same cosmological events. In the following verses, again addressed to Agni, the poet points to what is true about the ritual fire. Somehow Agni is responsible for the proper maintenance of the cosmos that, incidentally, he has done with truthful mantras. Mantras not only capture the truth with their insight, well formed and from the heart, they are the truth,

Page 21

they have actually participated in the primordial revelation of truth, and they therefore become essential to truth's preservation. Because of this participatory role played by mantra in the original events of creation, the implication is that if the priest were to pronounce the right mantra he would repeat the same primordial, life-preserving acts originally and continually performed by Agni with mantras:

3-4. Holding all manly powers in his hand,

he set the gods to trembling as he descended to his hiding place.

There thoughtful (dhiyamdha *) men find him

whenever they pronounce (sams*) mantras formulated in their hearts.

5-6. Like an unborn [god] he fortifies the earth floor, he stays the heaven with truthful mantras.

Protect the cherished tracks of the cows [of dawn]!

All our lives, Agni, you go from hiding place to hiding place. (1.67.3-6)

Like much in Agni mythology, the central concern here, and therefore the core of the insightful mantra, is Agni's role in the daily retrieval of the sun out of darkness and in the preservation of the sun's route across the sky(6). Because of their original, central role in making the broad space between heaven and earth(5) and because of their power,

apparently singular among the elements of ritual, to bring Agni from his hiding place (i.e., in the kindling of the firesticks and the appearance of the sun over the morning horizon), mantras have a doubly potent claim to truth.

As Kuiper (1960, 248) pointed out and as suggested by these verses, of all the gods, Agni, because of his secret hiding place, is the god of insight and inspiration. As the fire visible to man on earth, Agni links the worshipper to the fiery mysteries of the cosmic recurrence of the sun and the dawn. Because he gives rise to the sun every morning by the magical power of ritual analogy, Agni is thought to reside in the place of eternal life, the place from which the world is constantly maintained.11 Agni has and gives insight, the

revelatory insight of the mantra, because he alone knows the secrets of world continuity.

The following hymn, 4.11, describes Agni's relationship to speech that is well-formed and insightful and, therefore, immensely powerful:

1. Your delightful countenance, mighty Agni, shines out next to the [daytime] sun.

Bright to look at, it is also seen at night.

On your body, there is glossy food [i.e., butter] to see.

Page 22

2. Release the insight (manisa *) to the singer, Agni

through inspiration as through a canal, when you, of strong stock are praised!

Inspire us to that rich thought (mánman), most noble,

which you with all the gods would most graciously accept, brilliant one!

3. From you, Agni, come poetic gifts, from you insights (manisa*), from you choice hymns.

From you comes richness, ornamented by sons, to the properly devout and pious mortal.

From you comes richness, ornamented by sons, to the properly devout and pious mortal.

In document PREPARAR A LOS MAESTROS PARA EDUCAR (página 186-190)