II 0.2.3 .Pragmática literaria
II. 3.4 ¡Esto es Troya!
II.3.10. Héroes mitológicos
An analysis of the institutional framework – the structure – between central government and local management committees for education and health services also needs to consider the division of the responsibilities and decision-making powers; the content within the structure. This section 4.3 provides this perspective. After a summary of the formal responsibilities of the four different management committees, this section analyses data from the group interviews and anecdotal evidence about the actual activities of the committees, focusing on their meeting frequency and the items on their agendas. It then presents a few reflections by committee members about their successes and their problems. In short, this section discusses what local management committees do and how they feel about it.
Formal responsibilities of management committees
Formal responsibilities of School Management Committees in Uganda were defined in 1969 and are still widely and repeatedly referred to by education officials during the field research. The regulations provide the committee with broad powers, “to manage the school for which it has been established”. While the committee delegates the “day-to-day administration” to the headmaster, the committee is ultimately responsible for all matters relating to “the academic, social and domestic organisation and conduct of the school” (GoU, 1969: 8, 9). The introduction of universal primary education and abolishment of school fees in 1997 was accompanied by guidelines that reiterated the school committees were the “Statutory Organs at the school level and they represent Government”.
107 Committees are empowered to be “giving overall direction to the operation of the school” and “approving the school budget” (GoU, 1998a: 17).
Against the backdrop of the abolishment of user fees in 2001 – which was collected and administered largely by Uganda’s Health Unit Management Committees – the formal responsibilities of these dispensary committees were redefined in 2003 and now cover full management of dispensaries, highlighting five fields: [1] monitor the general administration of the dispensary by staff; [2] supervise financial management, including the approval of annual budgets and work plans, monitoring of expenses, ensuring funds from government’s health budget are accounted for, and authorising re-allocations; [3] advise upon, regulate and monitor the use of funds from other sources; [4] monitor procurement, storage and utilisation of medication; and [5] foster improved communication with the public and encourage community participation in health activities (GoU, 2003b: 1)
In Tanzania, the new primary education policy of 2001 significantly expanded the formal responsibilities of School Committees, essentially leaving them in overall charge after 2002. The new regulations detail eight areas, which can be summarised as: [1] approve school development plans and budgets as prepared by staff; [2] oversee day-to-day affairs of the school; [3] open bank accounts to receive and manage funds, “guaranteeing maximum accountability and transparency … making incomes and expenditures publicly available”; [4] prepare and submit reports to Village and District Council; and [5] “communicate to” and “sensitise” all “community stakeholders” with regard to the school (GoT, 2001b: 16).
Similarly, the Dispensary Committees created in 2002 in Tanzania were given ten specified legal responsibilities, covering four main areas: [1] approving dispensary plans and budgets, as well as reports prepared by the staff; [2] submitting reports to the District Health Board; [3] liaising with other health providers and potential donors; [4] assisting staff in carrying out “community based health initiatives” and ensuring “affordable health care services (GoT, 2002a: 1334). As noted earlier, Tanzania’s dispensary committees were created by central government alongside the introduction of user fees and a
108 Community Health Fund and were expected to play a role in “advocating” these measures (GoT, 2001d: 1).
In general, the management committees studied in the field research in 2004 had seen their formal responsibilities significantly increased over a few years.122 Worded in slightly varying ways, all management committees’ responsibilities essentially had come to cover planning and monitoring the delivery of public services including the pertaining financial planning and accounting and reporting to local government authorities. Moreover, with the exception of Uganda’s school committees, all management committees had explicit responsibilities for liaising or communicating with the surrounding community or local polity.
Meeting frequency
Against the above outlines of the formal responsibilities, Uganda’s school committees are expected to meet at least twice a year (GoT, 1969: 3), though Tanzania’s school committees have no regulated meeting frequency. Uganda dispensary committees are by regulation expected to “meet at least quarterly to conduct health unit business” (GoU, 2003b: 4) and Tanzania’s dispensary committees are also bound by regulations to meet quarterly (GoT, 2002a: 1333). The daily practice of these management committees, however, shows quite a different picture.
In the group interview members were asked to determine how often the committee had met in the preceding 12 months. Against a comparable set of formal responsibilities it is clear from Table 4 that school committees have a significantly higher meeting frequency than dispensary committees. The number of meetings per year for dispensary committees ranges from 0 to 6, while the number of meetings for school committees ranged from three to 11. In fact, it is likely that members of school committees meet even more often, because the listed frequencies do not include members’ participation in meetings of sub-committees, such as a disciplinary sub-committee or a finance sub-committee.
122
Uganda’s school committees were the only committees not to have seen their formal responsibilities significantly expanded through law changes – they always had held wide formal responsibilities. However, like the other committees they only received direct responsibility over significant sums of money in capitation grants since the decentralisation policies of the late 1990s.
109 While it is hard to draw conclusions about a management committee’s discharge of their responsibilities per se on the basis of the number of meetings, it does seem fair to conclude that school committees are more actively engaged with their responsibilities. What can also be concluded is that each committee is quite autonomous in determining how often they wish to meet. The rather wide range in meeting frequency even among similar committees in the same country and in the same districts suggests local actors determine what happens – irrespective of regulations or expectations of district health or education officials.
Table 4: Meeting frequency of management committees in last year
(n=64)
(Percent within school or dispensary committees per country)
Agenda items
A first impression of the agenda items and character of a meeting of dispensary committees and school committees emerges when looking at examples of minutes.123 The Anecdotal Evidence Boxes 1 and 2 show examples of the minutes of, respectively, two dispensary committees and two school committees in Uganda.124 These four examples are fairly typical of the collected minutes and illustrate that meetings of school and dispensary committees are predominantly about ‘hands-on’ affairs. In one dispensary committee the nurse in-charge presents the committee members with the need to repair the water tank. In another dispensary committee, the nurse suggests, “there should be shade provided in front
123
See Chapter 3 for methodological considerations regarding the analysis of minutes. 124
The Anecdotal Evidence Boxes are placed at the end of this chapter.
11 % (n =1) 22% ( n = 2) 11 % (n =1) 44% (n=4) 11 % (n =1) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 9% ( n= 1) 2 7 % (n =3) 9% ( n= 1) 9% ( n= 1) 2 7 % (n =3) 9% ( n= 1) 9% ( n= 1) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% (n=0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 7% ( n= 2) 7% ( n= 2) 11 % (n =3) 11 % (n =3) 30% ( n = 8) 11 % (n =3) 15 % (n =4) 7% ( n= 2) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 1 8 % (n =3) 24% ( n = 4) 24% ( n = 4) 24% ( n = 4) 12 % (n =2) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% ( n= 0) 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11
Tanzania Uganda Tanzania Uganda
110 of the building”. A school committee decides after a long discussion that includes the morality of a teacher: “If a teacher does not use the house given to him properly, the house should be given to another teacher”. In general, a reading of all Anecdotal Evidence Boxes at the end of this chapter provides a detailed insight in committees’ daily responsibilities and activities. These activities range from dealing with elopement – “the teacher and the eloped girl were interviewed in an urgent SMC meeting” (Box 8) – to negotiating in a meeting of parents the levels of an – illegal – parental contribution to a school feeding programme (Box 10).125
The examples in Box 1 and Box 2 also show how school committees can move beyond operational issues and discuss issues of strategic importance. No evidence of more strategic discussions was found in the minutes of dispensary committees. Box 2, for example, reveals how the school committee of an Islamic school strategises to regain access to government funding that it had lost the previous year. The chairman briefs the other committee members about a meeting he had with other chairpersons and the district Education Officer: “Their aim is to balance the education system”.
A more qualitative insight in committees’ responsibilities and activities emerges from an analysis of the answers in the 64 group interviews with management committees to the plenary question, “What are the issues you have discussed in your meetings last year?” 126 The committees listed their issues and they ranged from three to 15 issues. School committees generally listed more issues than dispensary committees, which is in line with expectations as they also meet more frequently. After the field research, the answers were clustered into three categories: a cluster of operational/internal issues (e.g. academic performance, disciplinary matters), a cluster of communication issues with government actors (e.g. periodic reports, requests for information or support), and a cluster of communication issues with actors in the community (e.g. meetings with parents, calling volunteers in a clean-up campaign).
125
Legally, PTAs can ask for one-off donations from parents. However, there is little in stopping PTAs and SMCs to ask for one-off contributions on a regular basis, as long as non-payment is not a reason to refuse a child’s access to school. Individual interview #18 (12 Oct 2004).
126
111 Table 5 shows in the column “dominating the agenda” that operational or internal issues overwhelmingly dominated the agenda of both school and dispensary committees. This confirms the impression from an analysis of the minutes as reflected in the boxes with anecdotal evidence that there is a high level of ‘hands-on’ management by all committees in the discharge of responsibilities. Communications with either government representatives or actors in the community definitely do not dominate the agenda.
Table 5: Agenda items and biggest successes and biggest problems
Topic Dominating the agenda Rated biggest success Rated biggest problem Uganda School Management Committees (n=17) Operational or internal issues 14 11 12 c) Communications with government 1 - 1 Communications with community/non-state actors 2 6 4 Total 17 17 17 Health Unit Management Committees (n=9) a) Operational or internal issues 8 6 5 Communications with government 1 2 4 Communications with community/non-state actors - 1 - Total 9 9 9 Tanzania School Management Committees (n=27) Operational or internal issues 25 19 18 c) Communications with government - - - Communications with community/non-state actors 2 8 9 Total 27 27 27 Health Facility Management Committees (n=6) b) Operational or internal issues 5 3 6 Communications with government 1 2 - Communications with community/non-state actors - 1 - Total 6 6 6
112
Notes
a.) The number of Health Unit Management Committees in the sample is 11. However, the members of two
committees had been in their positions for less than a year and said they could not yet indicate ‘successes’ or ‘problems’.
b.) The number of Health Facility Management Committees in the sample is 9. However, the members of
three committees had been in their positions for less than a year and said they could not yet indicate ‘successes’ or ‘problems’.
c.) A few school committees mentioned delays in the payment of grants as their biggest problem (3 in
Uganda, one in Tanzania), while other committees rated delayed parental contributions (in kind) as their biggest problems (3 in Uganda, one in Tanzania). These cases were categorised as ‘operational or internal issues’ because they appeared of an administrative character, rather than related to character of the ‘communications’ with either government or parents.
However, when school committees and dispensary committees were asked to look back at last year’s items on the agenda and determine their biggest success and their biggest problem, school committees and dispensary committees revealed differences.127 On top of the list for school and dispensary committees, logically, still featured operational or internal issues. Common among the biggest operational and internal successes and problems for school committees were matters like:
“Discipline among staff has improved. They now start on time.” 128 “The teacher houses are collapsing.” 129
“We have a good School Development Plan.” 130
“We had four pupils in F-1, now 18 pupils have achieved F-1.” 131
Dispensary committees in both countries listed similar operational or internal issues as their biggest successes or problems:
“We repaired the water tank.” 132
“We repaired the maternity room ourselves.” 133
127
See Chapter 3 for methodological considerations. 128
Group interview #18 (7 Oct 2004) 129
Group interview #24 (15 Oct 2004) 130
Group interview #42 (1 Dec 2004) 131
Group interview #47 (6 Dec 2004) 132
Group interview #12 (30 Sep 2004) 133
113 “We have made an annual dispensary development plan.” 134
However, school and dispensary committee differed when choosing their second biggest successes or problems. School committees chose items related to ‘communications with the community or non-state local actors’ as second on the list of biggest successes and problems. For example:
“Many parents don’t see the importance of education for their children.” 135 “Parents believe politicians who say government now pays for everything.” 136 “Parents and teachers are cooperating again.” 137
“Parents have been unable to contribute as promised. We don’t send pupils away, but they get watery porridge instead of solid ugali.” 138
While issues related to ‘communications with the government’ barely featured on the list of biggest successes or problems for school committees, these ‘communications with government’ were second on the list of biggest problems or successes for dispensary committees. For example:
“We succeeded in convincing the Director of the Health Services to send us one more nurse.” 139
“We pestered the Director so they gave us a microscope and we can now diagnose worm disease in the dispensary.” 140
“They don’t send us enough medicines.” 141
Explaining successes and problems
After listing their biggest successes and problems, the committee members were asked why they achieved these successes and how they thought they could overcome the
134
Group interview #33 (24 Nov 2004) 135
Group interview #02 (24 Sep 2004) 136
Group interview #22 (14 Oct 2004) 137
Group interview #32 (23 Nov 2004) 138
Group interview #46 (3 Dec 2004) 139
Group interview #08 (28 Sep 2004) 140
Group interview #19 (7Oct 2004) 141
114 problems.142 School committees and dispensary committees both listed, respectively, their relationship with local education authorities or health authorities as either a sources of their successes or their problems. School committees, for example, explained:
“The UPE system works, we get our money and without too many delays.” 143 “We always talk with the District Education Officer.” 144
“The District Education Officer is very busy and he can’t see us. So now we are talking with councillors on the Education Committee.” 145
And dispensary committees also explained their successes and their problems in relationship with the local health authorities:
“We posted our plan to the Sub-county and they are now supporting us.” 146 “People don’t trust us because government does not supply us with the promised drugs.” 147
“We get no allowance. The Sub-county says we should go to the district and the district tells us to ask the Sub-county.” 148
However, while dispensary committees exclusively refer to their relationship with local health authorities to explain success and problems, some school committees’ attribute their successes and problems also to two other categories; wider socio-economic or political issues and their relationship with non-state actors. Socio-economic issues referred to, for example, are:
“Orphans. Families have to take in too many orphans.” 149
“People have a heavy workload at home and no money.” 150
“Biggest problem is the tobacco trade. Parents and pupils see immediate benefit in tobacco, not in education, so many pupils drop out during peak times.” 151
142
See Chapter 3 for methodological considerations on “explaining successes and problems”. 143
Group interview #07 (28 Sep 2004). UPE is the acronym for Universal Primary Education. 144
Group interview #26 (18 Oct 2004) 145
Group interview #22 (14 Oct 2004) 146
Group interview #13 (1 Oct 2004) 147
Group interview #15 (5 Oct 2004) 148
Group interview #19 (7 Oct 2004) 149
Group interview #06 (27 Sep 2004) 150
Group interview #11 (30 Sep 2004) 151
115 “The radio tells parents UPE grants provide for everything. That is not true. It’s just politicians talking, looking for votes.” 152
And some school committees also attribute success and problems also to their ability – or failure – to develop relationship with non-state actors, outside the local education authorities. This varies from local metal scrap dealers to schools in Europe:
“We have been able to sensitise the leaders in the local mosque and the Catholic church.” 153
“We raised a lot of money in a deal with parents and traders in scrap metal.” 154 “We have not yet found a partnership with a school in Europe as they have in [neighbouring village] and [another neighbouring village].” 155
Conclusions
Two general conclusions can be drawn from an analysis of the operational practices of management committees. First, management committees’ formal responsibilities are defined quite broadly, generally encompassing ‘day-to-day’ management as well as matters like supervision, planning and strategy. In practice, however, the actual activities and agenda items of a vast majority of management committees revolve overwhelmingly around ‘day-to-day’ and ‘hands-on’ issues.
Second, when considering their successes and problems, both school committees and dispensary committees first and foremost mention issues in the operational sphere. However, school committees and dispensary committees clearly diverge when looking to explain their successes and problems. School committees clearly listed relations and communication with local and non-state actors as a source of success and problems, while dispensary committees listed their contacts with local and district government bodies as the source of their successes and problems.
152
Group interview #28 (19 Oct 2004) 153
Group interview #20 (8 Oct 2004) 154
Group interview #24 (15 Oct 2004) 155
116