CAPÍTULO V COMUNICACIÓN E INTELIGENCIA EMOCIONAL
5.1 PROCESO DE COMUNICACIÓN
5.1.2 BARRERAS EN LA COMUNICACIÓN
broad based terms such as Non‐Profit Organization (NPO) or Not‐For Profit (NFP) or Charitable Service Organizations (CSOs) and Private Voluntary Organizations (PVO) are commonly used to refer to organizations that are exempted from paying local, state or federal taxes; and that are not exclusively established for profit motives (Salamon 1996; Samimi 2010). In Britain, the terms Voluntary Organizations (VO) and Charitable Trusts Organizations (CTO) are commonly applied alternatively because of the historical christian tradition associated with voluntary work (Salamon 1996; Lewis 2001). Sebenta (2003:13) claims, that although researchers and various groups of people concurrently refer to NGOs as NFP, PVO, CTO, Third Sector
Organizations (TSO) and Civil Society Organizations (CSO), they all are referring to the same group of institutions. However, Senbeta (2003:13) states that, on the contrary “the concept of NGOs is overall a wrong concept as it says what it is not but does not say exactly what it is. It distinguishes itself from government organizations but does not characterise its real purpose or status in the society”. All the same, the term NGO is the most popular and widely used concept that is synonymous with the term NPO and will be used as such throughout this Thesis.
3.2.2. COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF NGOS
Salamon and Anheier (1992; 1996) further state that while these
terminologies differ, NGOs as such share and embrace common characteristics and perform similar types of activities. They (1996) have further suggested five common characteristics that organizations being analysed hold in common and are widely accepted to have across nations, when distinguishing NGOs from other types of organizations such as the government, private businesses and other ad hoc
groupings. These are: (a) Independence; (b) Voluntary character; (c) Organization;
(d) Non‐engagement in profits; and (e) Self‐ governance (see also The
Commonwealth (1995); Fowler (1997); Willets (2001); Bhose (2003); Senbeta (2003);
Edele (2005); and Lewis and Kanji (2009). The common characteristics that
distinguish NGOs from other types of organizations such as governments and private businesses are now described in detail: These are:
a) Independent or Private: an NGO must be formed by private initiatives and must be independent, in that, they should not be part of government structures or controlled by a public body, and in that government, officials must not lead their board of directors (Febbrara et al 1999; Edele 2005).
Although NGOs may enjoy state support and may receive financial support from government, in theory, they must not be administered by rules and regulations governing the operations of government institutions (Lewis and Kanji 2009). This is because, when defining NGOs, independence is in terms of its basic structure and not its sources of finance, as these can be raised from different organizations and individuals besides the government (Salamon 1996). Fowler 2000:122 suggests that although NGOs are expected to operate independently, it is sometimes, their over‐reliance on government finance that leads to the weakening of the NGO’s autonomy and subsequently compel them to operate in accordance with government standards and rules that accompany public financing, thereby undermining their comparative advantage. When NGOs are operating independently, they usually have the comparative advantage of playing a role of effectively
policing the government in terms certain public decisions it makes.
Fowler (1997) gives an example from India where a number of NGOs were functioning as parastatal agencies after the government had allocated them large sums of money to implement a national development plan. Similarly, using examples from her study of NGOs in Zimbabwe, Dorman (2001) established that financial and material constraints encouraged NGOs to develop cordial working relationships with the government, subsequently weakening their autonomy as well their ability to challenge controversial governance issues. However, Andreas Estele (2005) suggests that an NGO’s
internal management must be free from controlling forces are located outside the organization for it to enjoy autonomy.
b) Voluntary: an NGO must result from people’s self‐ chosen voluntary initiatives aimed at pursuing a shared interest or concern that rely on voluntary contributions in form of finance, labour and materials. Although membership is neither legally demanded nor coerced, the NGO must have some degree of voluntary participation, both in the implementation of activities and with regards to administrative matters such as the board of directors (Bhose 2003; Edele 2005; Lewis and Kanji 2009). However, in his analysis of the term ‘voluntary’ Salamon (1996:9) claims that “it is more prescriptive than a descriptive term since much of the activities of the organizations to which it is applied is actually carried out by paid staff, not volunteers.” Volunteers are found mostly in activities such as fundraising campaigns and general responsibilities.11
c) Organization: an NGO must be an institutional presence and structure with established formal procedures for its internal governance systems. It must exist for a purpose and be made up of people who know their roles or what is expected of them to reach their purpose (Fowler 2000). Further, it must have a benevolence purpose aiming to improve the welfare of the
disadvantaged or those who are unable to achieve their full rights in their society, and not for the benefit of the founders or promoters (Bhose 2003).
In addition, that it must not be designed as a political party or be involved in
11 From 2000 to mid 2006, I worked for a British Charitable Organization called Harvest Help that operated as an intermediary between northern based donors and recipient local NGOs in Zambia. Besides securing funds from organizations such as the European Union, the Department for International Development (DfID) and some local trusts and foundations, the charity’s head office based in Telford, England held a number of fundraising campaigns to mobilize local resources. It was at such events where a number of volunteers were often sought to assist paid staff in organizing and managing fundraising events. After a fundraising event was complete, it was the responsibility of volunteers to write thank you letters to all individuals and organizations that donated money.
criminal activities (Lewis and Kanji 2009). Salamon (1996) says that the entity should be formal so as to distinguish it from adhoc groups and informal family groupings. He (1996) further states that an entity, however should not be coerced to officially register with any government body, as evidence on the ground, with reference to the United States of America has shown that some NGOs have operated effectively without securing any approval from the government. However, registering with the government offers some advantages of tax exemption if required.
d) Not for Profit: Commercial interests or profits must not primarily motivate an NGO’s establishment. However, an NGO may engage in income‐
generating activities such as through selling publications or handcrafts made by women in project areas; and through providing consultancy services. The NGO should use the surplus revenues generated to further its objectives but is restricted by government regulation from distributing such profits or any material gains to its owners or directors (Salamon 1996; Fowler 1997, Lewis 2001). In reality, this characteristic is difficult to apply in that whereas sharing of dividends amongst owners and directors is prohibited and compliance is enforced. However, some NGOs can potentially circumvent this provision by paying excessive salaries perks and other personal benefits since doing so is indistinguishable as violation of laws and regulations (Salamon 1996; Brhlíková and Ortmann 2006).
e) Self ‐Governance: NGOs must have an internal mechanism for controlling and managing their own affairs (Lewis 2001; Anheier 2000). However, Willets (2001) further acknowledges that even with these generally accepted basic characteristics, the margins of difference between NGOs and other
organizations can sometimes be unclear.
Another important way in which NGOs are distinguished is by locality. There are NGOs that are based in their country of origin, usually in the Northern
countries12 (also called industrialised countries) but have operations both within their own country and other parts of the world; these are called International NGOs (INGOs) or Northern NGOs (NNGOs) (Rutherford 1997; Michael 2004; Banks and Hulme 2012). Examples of NNGO are Oxfam, CARE, World Vision International, Catholic Relief Services, Action Aid, Plan International, and Save the Children amongst others. Some of these NNGOs usually fundraise for development work in southern countries; hence they sometimes assume the role of donors to SNGOs. At other times NNGO often assume the role of intermediaries between donors based in northern countries and the recipients located in southern countries. Southern NGOs (SNGOs), also known as Local NGOs, are located in southern countries or developing countries, also known as Third World Countries (TWC); their activities are limited to the boundaries of the country. Usually, NNGOs have adequate financial resources and technical expertise, which is often limited to their country level knowledge and thus they choose to work through Southern NGOs (SNGO) as partners or
intermediaries to benefit from their local knowledge and presence (Brehm 2001;
Banks and Hulme 2012).
Fowler (1997:36) claims, that increasingly, these partnerships between the NNGOs and the SNGOs are influenced by colonial histories, in that, for example, British NGOs are mostly found in their former colonies, and similarly, the French NNGOs are also mostly found in their former colonies. In terms of strengths, since the SNGOs work nearer to their target communities, they thus have the advantage of understanding the culture and language better than the NNGO. Thus, by working in partnership with NNGOs, the SNGOs tend to benefit financially and from publicity in international spheres, especially where international support is critical for success (Michael 2004). Through such partnerships, both the NNGOs and SNGOs enjoy the comparative advantages that each set of organizations has, whilst acting as a link between their respective constituencies (Brehm 2001). However, such funding
12 Brehm (2001) defines Northern Countries as those that are net donors of development aid while Southern Countries are net recipients of development aid.
relationships between NNGOs and SNGOs are often perceived as power imbalanced, in that they often cause financial dependency and tend to influence prioritization of activities towards their areas of interest at the expense of locally identified needs and agency mission (Rutherford 1997; Edwards and Hulme 1998 Michael 2004).
Hence, Sara Michael (2004) argues that NNGOs are usually accused of preventing their partners in the South from attaining power, or their long‐term institutional development as a result. This situation is changing as she (2004) says that before the 1980s the NNGOs were very prominent in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America, but that more recently some of the SNGOs have also become a formidable force in international development, though that is creating competition for funding and subsequent tensions (Michael 2004:4). This is evidenced by many bilateral and multilateral donor agencies that are providing financial resources directly to SNGOs, by‐passing the traditional NNGOs ‐ a practice that is increasing tensions between these organizations (Edwards and Hulme 1998). The
improvement in digital communication, such as the internet and mobile phones, is what has been said to enable donor organizations to access information directly from SNGOs rather than through NNGOs as was the case previously (Gnärig 2015).
NGOs, as Haque (2007) has observed, can be divided into various categories, depending on their degree of autonomy, location and the scope of activities that they perform. With regard to their organization, some NGOs can be big
multinational organizations operating in several countries, while others are small grassroots organizations operating within the boundaries of their country. Some are formal in that they are registered and licensed to operate based, on the appropriate laws governing such institutions within a country (Michael 2004), while others are informal. There are still others that are bureaucratic in that numerous individuals operate their administrative system, and those that are not bureaucratic. When considered in terms of financial resources, the majority are funded from external sources such as individual donors, foundations, corporations and governments,
while others depend on their own fundraising activities; some are well resourced and others barely survive from one year to another (Lewis and Kanji 2009).
3.2.3. DEFINING NON‐GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
The concept of ‘NGO’ as we know it, came into existence in 1945 after the United Nations desired to differentiate in its charter between the inter‐
governmental specialised agencies and the international private organizations (Willetts 2001; Martens 2002; Mostashari 2005). However, in the recent decade the term ‘NGO’ has become popular, even amongst different society actors outside the United Nations. For instance, both academics and activists have adopted the term
‘NGO’ internationally and nationally (Martens 2002). Before 1945, health care, education, emergencies and a variety of social welfare activities were carried out primarily under the auspices of the church rather than the state, until after the reformation of the laws governing the church were changed to enact the statutes of charitable application (Douglas 1987:43). Martens (2002, citing Willets 1982), writes that prior to the popularization of the term NGOs by the United Nations, some authors used other terminologies such as ‘Private Organizations’ or ‘International Pressure Groups’ while the League of Nations, that has been superseded by the United Nations called them, ‘Voluntary Agencies.’
Bhose (2003:23‐24) claims that the history of voluntary associations can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period only emerging as a concept in the twentieth century, particularly following World War II when warfare and disasters, social – economic discriminations and ideological interest accelerated the growth of voluntary agencies. Lewis and Kanji (2009) state that, although NGOs are found everywhere, understanding them is very problematic because they are an
exceptionally heterogeneous group of organizations which perform a variety of roles and assume a wide range of forms, shapes and structures within and across different countries. This is largely because countries have their own particular characteristics, due to their distinctive political, social, and economic environments (Edele 2005).