CAPÍTULO IV: CAPACIDADES DE LA INTELIGENCIA EMOCIONAL
B. Aptitudes Sociales o interpersonales. Son las que determinan el manejo de las relaciones
4.4 LA INFLUENCIA DE LAS EMOCIONES EN LA RELACIÓN HUMANA
The IRR model is used as a framework of analysis in a number of studies on displacement and resettlement by scholars such as Thangaraj (1996), Lassailly‐Jacob (1996) and Mahapatra (1999a). Others have commented on the model’s limitations and suggested areas in which the IRR model can be improved. Many of the
weaknesses are to do with the comprehensiveness of the model that considers only eight impoverishment risks. For instance, Nayak (2000:105‐107), while
acknowledging the IRR model as a brilliant tool for identifying the main
impoverishment risks, says it is not comprehensive enough as it does not account for the full range of risks that generally come with for example, landlessness.
Therefore, he suggests that the framework should be complemented with investigations that recognise both the unquantifiable and quantifiable indicators such as “mental and physical health, nutrition, poverty, scarcity of land, economic and personal security, workload and work conditions, age and gender vulnerabilities, social activities and leisure, consumption, communication, human rights,
environment, children and adolescents, social prejudice effects, political participation, the disabled and the elderly.” (Nayak 2000: 105)
Downing and Garcia‐Downing (2009) have added the psycho‐social‐cultural risks that they say are often neglected and least likely to be mitigated by planners and policy markers. In their Chapter entitled ‘Routine and Dissonant Cultures’
Downing and Garcia‐Downing (200:225‐253) have drawn to the attention of the importance of pyscho‐socio‐cultural impoverishment that is inflicted by involuntary displacement. Scudder (2009:33) casts some doubt on whether Cernea’s
impoverishment risks can be prioritized in all types of DIDR, given the complexities and variabilities involved in each situation that varies from culture to culture; and between women and men etc. The evidence to suggests that resettlement
situations are complex and rarely progress according to schedule (see for example de Wet 2006). Research for this thesis has clearly demonstrated that the complexity of issues make it difficult for projects to proceed according to plan, as will be
explained in Chapter Eight.
de Wet (2006: 199), while recognising the attention to detail of the IRR framework criticizes the model for suggesting that adherence to improved advance planning can eliminate resettlement challenges. He advocates for the recognition and acknowledgement of complexities inherent in the resettlement process that interrupt implementation schedules, which are usually outside the control of the project officials. Thus, he has encouraged a more inclusive open‐ ended and flexible approach to resettlement planning that recognizes that projects seldom proceed according to plans. Mehta and Yong (2003) criticize the model for failing to capture symbolic and intangible issues such as changes in social cultural identities; and for not capturing conflicting interests resulting from issues such as gender, class and educational levels (see also Koenig 2006). Sorensen (1996) criticises the IRR framework because, while it encourages cross‐sectoral perspectives in analysis as well as policy making, it does not sufficiently provide concrete suggestions for how to carry out cross –sectoral research and develop feasible cross‐sectoral policies.
Other scholars have proposed expanding the list of risks.
For example, Mathur (1998) has suggested including loss of access to public services while Mahapatra (1999a) has suggested that the IRR model be expanded to include loss of education, in addition to the main impoverishment risks. Mahapatra claims some children do not continue with their schooling in new relocation sites because families do not have adequate financial resources to support their children’s education, or sometimes the demand for extra family labour to earn incomes forces parents to withdraw children from school. Research in 2015, shows that before the dam Simamba did not have any schools at all: however, some key informants in Manchavwa neighbourhood reported that since their children attended school in the old Chipepo, the move disrupted attendance as they were moved to locations that were very far from a school.
Discussion on Cernea’s Framework
While I agree that Cernea’s framework is of great value to problem
identification, planning and implementation to prevent or mitigate impoverishment, based on my own experience in Simamba, I would add three comments;
Firstly, I argue, that while the IRR framework provides a standard instrument to be used to predict potential risks and subsequent solutions, care must be taken by planners/analysts to ensure that lesser but subtle risks such as threats to leadership by elites in social institutions, including the resettlers’ socio‐political systems are addressed. Attitudes, interests, local commitments and bargaining power of the resettlers are also important considerations in addition to the main risks.
Secondly, bearing in mind that resettlement processes are diverse, complex and dynamic, I ask how often or frequently the IRR framework should be used as a tool for analysis and planning during the various stages of project cycle to establish as to whether any risks are still at play, or new ones are being formed i.e. whether risks are being inverted into development opportunities; whether these
opportunities are being sustained, or whether backsliding is happening in certain areas. In that way the resettlement projects will not be cursed by old problems
caused by the time‐lag between the different phases of diagnosing, planning and project implementation.
Thirdly, by lacking a framework for soliciting people’s opinions about
displacement and resettlement, the IRR framework places responsibilities of tackling the reconstruction process in the hands of the project planners. This could
perpetuate dependency: a syndrome that inculcates assumptions amongst the resettlers that outside support is required for them to improve their lives, thereby defeating their own survival instincts and techniques.
2.5. DEWET’S SOCIAL‐SPATIAL CHANGE THEORY
The persistent consequential impoverishment that occurs following
development projects such as dams, highways, urbanisation among others, has over the years led researchers such as Chambers (1970), Nelson (1973), Scudder and Colson (1982), Scudder (1993; 2005a; 2009), Cernea (2000b) and Downing and Garcia‐Downing (2009) among others to come up with frameworks for
understanding and explaining the impacts and consequences of resettlement on the people and the environment. The concerted efforts of all these researchers are testimony that Development‐ Induced Displacement and Resettlement (DIDR) is a very dynamic and complex phenomenon hence the multi‐dimensional positions and multi‐disciplinarity that it has entailed. It was with this understanding that Chris de Wet, using his over 30 years experience as well as research on resettlement more widely, villagisation schemes in South Africa, has introduced a theory that he calls Social‐Spatial Theory (see for example deWet 1995, 2006, and 2015).
deWets’s social‐spatial change theory cuts across other earlier frameworks by directing attention to the base of DIDR i.e. imposed spatial change, the need to localize resettlement and the on‐going specific local changes it brings about.
Through this theory, deWet has characterised DIDR related phenomena by drawing attention to three basic elements, which are: i) spatially oriented, ii) processual, iii) risk oriented aspects that be take into consideration the inherent complexities as