CAPÍTULO VI: CONTROL DE EMOCIONES Y LIDERAZGO
6.2 CONÓCETE A TI MISMO
NGOs are understood to have been in existence for centuries. Their
existence were motivated by philanthropic concepts that David Levis (2001:29, citing Ilchman et al 1998) has defined as “the ethical notions of giving and serving to those beyond one’s immediate family, that has existed in different forms in most cultures throughout history, often driven by religious traditions.” Werker and Ahmed (2008) have highlighted that, records show that NGOs have existed since 1807. In their early years, most NGOs were mainly campaigning for either medical supplies or for the welfare of animals (Pinckney 2009). However, the work of NGOs become more noticeable in 1839, when several organizations worked together to establish the Anti‐Slavery Society (ASS), that actively campaigned for the abolition of slave trade in Britain, while other organizations have been reported to have campaigned for
women’s suffrage. Several more NGOs were formed after the wars that had ravaged Europe. For example, the International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC) was founded in 1863 after the crimean war. Still a lot more NGOs devoted to
humanitarian and development goals emerged after the second world war, starting relatively very small and expanding into complex organizations over years.
These included NGOs such as the Save the Children Fund (SCF) and the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (now called OXFAM) that were established in 1919 and 1942 respectively (Lewis 2001; Michael 2004; Werker and Ahmed 2008).
Save the Children Fund was created by Eglantyne Jebb to provide relief to children in Europe who were devastated by the first world war while OXFAM was created to provide famine relief to victims of the Greek civil war (Lewis 2001). Also, in the United States of America, an international NGO called Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) was established in 1945 to provide food and other relief services to people in Europe after the second world war (Michael 2004; Lewis 2001). However, since the end of the second world war, the numbers of NGOs have continued to increase and to play an important role in development (Werker and Ahmed 2008). For instance, Deborah Eade (2000) states that most NGOs (for
example, CARE and OXFAM) that started as welfare and emergency relief agencies transformed into development NGOs more recently after the 1980s, after it become clear that poverty and vulnerability were more as a result of structural issues than natural causes. Thus, since the 1980, the development platform has seen an explosion in numbers and size of NGOs.
For instance, in 1909, there were only 176 International Non‐Governmental Organizations (INGOs) that grew to 2, 970 by 1993 (Edwards and Hulmes 1995:3).
These numbers have since increased from 20,000 in 2005 and to 67,000 by 2014 (Union of International Associations ‐2014). Similarly, Koch et al (2008:1) reports that the share of bilateral official development aid channelled through NGOs exceeded 10 per cent of national budgets in 2005‐2006 of a number of OECD countries, with overall grants amounting to US$15 billion annually. The size and numbers of NGOs is different across countries but showing an increase, for example in 1995, Britain had over 500,000 NGOs, out of which 175,000 were registered charities. Makoba (2002) reports that between 1973 and 1988, NGOs were involved in just 15 World Bank projects annually. But by 1990, around 89 projects,
representing 40 per cent of the newly approved projects by the World Bank, were delivered through NGOs. At least four factors are cited in the literature as having contributed to the proliferation and expansion of NGOs in both relief and the development sector. These are:
Firstly, it was the loss of the appeal of the macro theories of mainstream modernisation and radical dependency, which had influenced development thinking for several decades that, resulted in the search for alternatives actors besides the state, and thus, NGOs fitted in well (Lewis 2001:30). Also, it was assumed that markets and the private sectors were the most efficient vehicles for attaining economic growth and for delivering goods and services to many people‐ and thus the government should devolve its social service delivery role in the economy and instead provide an enabling policy environment for the private sector to do such provisioning Edwards and Hulme (1995:4, citing Makoba 2002). Within this context NGOs were viewed favourably for being cost‐effective and more suited in targeting
the poor with appropriate goods and services, than the state (Fugere 2001).
Additionally, NGOs were perceived to be lean, flexible and innovative in working with the poor, as well as, were idealised as organizations committed to ‘doing good’
or as being the ‘magic bullet’ for solving all the problems that had befallen the development field (Banks et al 2015).
Secondly, within the framework of the New Policy Agenda (NPA), particularly after the cold war, NGOs were regarded as essential mechanisms for advancing democracy and for achieving a vibrant civil society, that in turn were viewed as critical for the success of the agenda’s economic success (Edwards and Hulme 1995, citing Moore 1993). Besides the ideologies of the NPA, there were also the neo‐
liberal policies. Edwards and Hulme (2000) and Nicolls (2000) argue that
instrumental in this regards were the break‐up of eastern europe and the neo‐liberal ideologies promoted by the then, British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher and her then counterpart, United States of America, president, Ronald Reagan, who both advocated for the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP). SAPs were aimed at curbing government spending, thereby rolling back public social service provisioning consequently creating new space for NGO growth and expansion. Therefore, while
“NGOs have always provided welfare services to poor people in countries where government lacked the resources to ensure universal coverage in health and education,” the difference is that NGOs had subsequently become the ‘most preferred channel’ or the ‘favoured child’ for service provision, replacing the state (Edwards and Hulme 1995:4);
Thirdly, there is evidence to suggest that ‘the rise and growth of NGOs has been directly related to increasing availability of official funding under the New Policy Agenda’ (Edwards and Hulme 1995:4; Lewis 2001; Fugere 2001; Makoba 2002; Senbeta 2003; Agg 2006; Koch et al 2008; Lewis and Kanji 2009; Pinckney 2009).
Fourthly; Lewis (2001:30) adds another reason leading to the rise of NGOs as resulting from the shift in traditional economic and political concerns about
development to include arguments on the importance of environment, gender, and
social development by NGOs from the North and South that were achieved through campaigns and policy dialogue. With the increased focus on issues such as
environment and gender, NGOs were perceived as better skilled at mobilizing local people’s participation than government (ibid)
3.6. TRENDS IN THE INTERNATIONAL‐NGO (INGO)