La conciencia de la inconciencia

said that the Devil once came to the region to learn their language, Euskera, so that he could entrap the inhabitants. He gave up after seven years when he was only able to master two words: bai and ez (“yes” and “no”).

are found in New York and Tampa, Florida. A dis- tinctive group of Isleños, descendants of Canary Island immigrants, is found in southern Louisiana. The Basques settled mostly in the rural regions of California, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona and became ranchers. Some Basque immigrants, however, were drawn to the mining jobs of West Virginia and the rubber and steel plants of Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Though the 2005 census estimates report 59,000 Basque Americans, it is thought that this number may underrepre- sent the total population, which may be as high as 100,000.52 _{Today most Basque descendants are}

involved in some aspect of animal husbandry or small business; few have entered other professions. Newer Basque communities now exist in Con- necticut and Florida because jai alai (a Basque sport) facilities were established there.

Portuguese. As of 2005 over 1.3 million Americans

were of Portuguese descent. In 2000, 50,000 claimed Cape Verdean ancestry, and 4,000 reported Azore Islands heritage. (Immigrants from the Cape Verde and Azore islands and those from Madeira may not feel Portuguese. Instead they identify with their island or city of origin.) Initially the Portuguese Americans on the West Coast were farmers and ranchers, but eventually their descendants moved into professional, technical, and administrative positions.40_{On the East Coast}

the descendants of the Portuguese who settled in the whaling ports now make up a significant part of the fishing industry, though only 3 percent of all Portuguese Americans work in this occupa- tion. The percentage of Portuguese families living in poverty is half that of the U.S. average.

Worldview

Religion

Italians. In Italy the Roman Catholic Church was

a part of everyday life. Immigrants to America, however, found the church to be more remote and puritanical, as well as staffed by the Irish. The church responded by establishing national parishes (parishes geared toward one ethnic group with a priest from that group), that helped immigrants adjust to America. Some religious festivals, part of daily spiritual life in Italy, were transferred to America and are still celebrated today, such as the Feast of San Gennaro in New York’s Little Italy.

Spaniards. Most Spaniards are Roman Catholic.

The Jesuit Order was founded in Basque country and has significantly influenced Basque devo- tion. Basque Americans are involved in their parishes, and there is the expectation that reli- gion is part of daily life and sacrifice.

Portuguese. The Roman Catholic Church also

helped the Portuguese ease into the mainstream of American life. Local churches and special parishes often sponsor traditional religious festas that include Portuguese foods, dances, and color- ful costumes.

Family

Italians. The social structure of rural villages in

southern Italy was based on the family, whose interests and needs molded each individual’s atti- tudes toward the state, church, and school. The family was self-reliant and distrusted outsiders. Each member was expected to uphold the family honor and fulfill familial responsibilities. The father was head of the household; he maintained his authority with strict discipline. The mother, although subordinate, controlled the day-to-day activities in the home and was often responsible for the family budget. Once in America, the chil- dren broke free of parental control due to economic necessity. Although sons had always been allowed some independence, daughters soon gained their freedom as well because they were expected to work outside the home like their brothers. Education eventually also changed the family. Early immigrants repeatedly denied their chil- dren schooling, sending them to work instead. However, by 1920, education was considered an important stepping stone for Italian Americans.

Spaniards. In the traditional Spanish family, the

father spent much of his time working and social- izing outside the home, while the mother devoted her life to her children. Typically, one daughter would choose not to marry and would care for her parents as they aged. In the United States, Spanish- American families are usually limited to imme- diate members, although the obligation to parents remains stronger than for most Americans. An elder may live part of the year with one child, then part of the year with another child. Independent living and retirement homes are also common. The Basque family was customarily an extended one. Basques in Spain are prohibited from marrying non-Basques, but in the United States many 158 NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPEANS

There are over 1.2 million Canadians of Italian ancestry according to the 2001 census figures. Boise, Idaho is considered the Basque capital of the United States.

A tortilla in Spain is an egg omelet, not the cornmeal flatbread eaten by the Mexicans. It is believed that the Spanish called the Mexican bread by that name because of its similar shape.

Basques marry other nationalities. Basques accept all members who marry into their family.

Spanish women hold unique status among southern Europeans. Class distinctions are more important than gender when it comes to educa- tional and professional attainment. The Basque women are historically recognized for their equal- ity. Since ancient times their duties have been as valued as those of men, and jobs are often not gender-specific.

Portuguese. Like the Italians, the Portuguese have

close family solidarity and have had some success in maintaining the traditional family structure. Grown sons and daughters often live close to their parents, and family members try to care for the sick at home. Family structure is threatened, however, when women must work or generational values change. Men tend to dominate the family and, as a result, some Portuguese-American women marry outside the group.

Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices.

Traditional Italian health beliefs include concepts common in the American majority culture as well as concerns associated with folk medicine. Fresh air is believed necessary to health, and some older Italian Americans maintain that the “heavy” air of the United States is considered unhealthy compared to the “light” air of Italy. Well-being is defined as the ability to pursue normal, daily activities. There is the expectation that health declines with age.

Some Italian Americans believe that illness is due to contamination (through an unclean or sick person) or heredity (blood). Older immi- grants may also think that sickness occurs because of drafts (surgery may be avoided so that organs will not be exposed to air), the suppres- sion of emotions (i.e., anxiety, fear, grief), or supernatural causes. Some Italians believe that a minor illness can be attributed to the evil eye and that serious conditions result from being cursed by a malicious person or God.28,48,54_{Saints may be}

implored for protection, good luck charms worn, or, more traditionally, the practices of a maghi (witch) used to avoid illness. Although many Italians do not profess a belief that God punishes sin with a curse, there is often a fatalistic approach to terminal illness as being the result of God’s will. Problems in pregnancy are sometimes thought to be due to diet by Italian Americans, especially those of older generations. Unsatisfied cravings

are reputed to cause deformities and, if a woman does not eat a food she smells, she may suffer a miscarriage. Little has been reported regarding Spanish and Portuguese health practices.

TRADITIONAL FOOD HABITS

Although the foods of the southern European countries are similar, as detailed in the Cultural Food Groups list (Table 6.2), there are notable dif- ferences in preparation and presentation. Many Americans think of Italian cooking as consisting of pizza and spaghetti. In reality, these dishes are only a small part of the regional cuisine of south- ern Italy, the original homeland of most Italian Americans. Spanish food is mistakenly equated with the hot and spicy cuisine of Mexico. Although Mexico was a colony of Spain, the foods and food habits of the two countries differ substantially. Portugal and Spain have very similar cuisines, but most of the Portuguese immigrants to the United States are from the Azore Islands and the island of Madeira. Their diet was less varied than that of the mainland Portuguese.

Ingredients and Common Foods

Foreign Influence. The Phoenicians and Greeks,

who settled along the Mediterranean coast in ancient times, are believed to have brought the olive tree and chickpeas (garbanzo beans) to the region. In addition, fish stew, known as bouilla- baisse in France and zuppa di pesce alla marinara in Italy, may be of Greek origin. The Muslims brought eggplants, lemons, oranges, sugar cane, rice, and a variety of sweetmeats and spices. Marzipan, a sweetened almond paste used exten- sively in Italian desserts, and rice flavored with saffron, as in the northern Italian dish risotto alla Milanese, are both believed to have Muslim ori- gins. In Spain the Muslim influence is also seen in saffron-seasoned rice and in the use of ground nuts in sauces, candies, and other desserts.

It was the food of the New World colonies, however, that shaped much of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese cuisine. Chocolate, vanilla, toma- toes, avocados, chile peppers, pineapple, white and sweet potatoes, corn, many varieties of squash, and turkey were brought back from the Americas. The tomato is of particular importance to the character of southern European cooking. Asian ingredients have had a significant impact on the fare of Portugal and, to a lesser degree, the

Chapter 6: Northern and Southern Europeans 159

Olive oil is labeled according to method of processing and the percent of acidity, from “extra virgin”to “virgin”(or “pure”) olive oil. In the United States only the oils derived from the first press of the olives can be called virgin; a blend of refined and virgin olive oils developed to reduce acidity must be labeled “pure.”