El sentido del texto: construcción del lector e implicación comunitaria

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Small numbers of Schwenkfelders from south- ern Germany, members of a pacifist religious sect similar to Quakers, settled in Pennsylvania in the mid- 1700s. They introduced crocus flowers, source of the spice saffron.

The word Dutch is a corrup- tion of Deutsch, meaning “German”and has nothing to do with the Netherlands.

The Gypsies are an insular ethnic group found throughout the world. When they first arrived in Europe in the 1300s from India, they were mistaken for Egyptians. Their name derives from this error. Those from eastern and southeastern Europe are the Rom, and some Gypsies prefer the name Roma.

numbers of younger Poles have taken advantage of the freedom resulting from post-communist rule to come to the United States.

Other Central Europeans. Nearly 4 million

Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Swiss have come to the United States, primarily during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, for economic and political reasons.

Austrian immigration patterns are not entirely known because Austrians and Hungarians were classified as a single group in U.S. statistics until 1910. More than 2 million Austrians are believed to have come to the United States searching for economic opportunities in the decade following 1900. Most were unskilled, and many were fathers who left families in Austria with the hopes of making their fortune. Many Austrians never found the advancement they were seeking, and approxi- mately 35 percent returned home. A second, smaller wave of immigration occurred in the 1930s, when 29,000 well-educated, urban Austrian Jews fled Hitler’s arrival.

The first group of Hungarians arriving in the United States was several thousand political refugees following the revolution of 1848. Most were men—well educated, wealthy, and often titled. Later Hungarian immigrants who arrived at the turn of the century were often poor, young, single men who found job opportunities in the expanding industrial workplace. Many worked in the coal mines of eastern Ohio, West Virginia, northern Illinois, and Indiana. Cities that developed large Hungarian popula- tions were primarily located in the Northeast and Midwest. More than 50,000 additional Hungarians entered the United States as refugees after World War II and the 1956 uprising against the communist government. They first settled in the industrial towns populated by earlier Hungarian immigrants, but many, mostly pro- fessionals, soon moved to other cities that offered better jobs.

Czech immigrants initially tended to be farm- ers or skilled agricultural workers who settled in the states of Nebraska, Wisconsin, Texas, Iowa, and Minnesota, often near the Germans. Later Czech immigrants were skilled laborers; they settled in the urban areas of New York, Cleveland, and especially Chicago.

The majority of the Slovak immigrants were young male agricultural workers who arrived

before World War II. Those who decided to remain in America later sent for their wives and families. The majority settled in the industrial Northeast and Midwest; they labored in coal mines, steel mills, and oil refineries.

Immigrants from Switzerland came to the United States for economic opportunities. The majority arrived prior to World War I, seeking jobs as artisans or professionals in the urban areas of New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cincinnati, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.

Another group without national boundaries found throughout central Europe (as well as in northern and southern Europe) is the Gypsies, also known as Roma. Gypsy immigrants to the United States are not counted in U.S. Census figures. There are an estimated 100,000 to 1,000,000 Gypsies in America, from a variety of Gypsy groups and speaking different dialects.20_{Though they origi-}

nate from numerous European countries, the majority living in the United States are believed to have come from central Europe.

Russians and People of the FSU. Russian immi-

grants originally came to Alaska and the West Coast, rather than to the eastern states. Most of their settlements were forts or outposts used to protect their fur trade and to shelter missionaries. When Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, half of the settlers returned home and many of the others moved to California. Subsequent immigration was primarily to the East Coast, although some Russians (Molokans, followers of a religion that had rejected the Russian Eastern Orthodox Church) immigrated to the West Coast in the early twentieth century.

Russians, mainly impoverished peasants seek- ing a better life, began to arrive in large numbers during the 1880s. Over 1.5 million were Jews seeking freedom from persecution as well as eco- nomic opportunity. A second wave of immigrants came after the 1917 revolution, when more than 2 million people fled the country; 30,000 settled in the United States. After World War II, only small numbers of Soviet refugees, primarily Jews, were allowed to emigrate. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, nearly 200,000 Russians settled in the United States between 1990 and 1993. The settlement patterns of Russians are similar to those of other immigrants from central Europe. For the later wave of immigrants the port of entry was New York City. Many remained in New York, and 176 CENTRAL EUROPEANS, PEOPLE OF THE FORMER SOVIET UNION, AND SCANDINAVIANS

Many recent refugees from the FSU have been admitted to the United States due to ethnic or religious persecu- tion. In one study, immi- grants reported they feared for their safety and felt they could not live openly as Jews due to anti-Semitism.33

others settled in nearby industrial areas that offered employment in the mines and factories.

The largest populations of immigrants from the FSU are from the Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia. Lengthy Russian domination of the region hinders estimates of the total numbers in the United States because some settlers were listed as Russians in immigration figures. It is believed that the first significant number of Lithuanians, approximately 300,000, arrived in the United States following the abolition of serfdom in 1861.13_{Nearly 30,000 refugees fleeing Soviet con-}

trol came following World War II. The largest influx of Ukrainian immigrants occurred in the 1870s, when almost 350,000 men were recruited to work the Pennsylvania mines as strikebreakers. A majority settled in that state, though smaller numbers found factory work in Ohio, New York, and Michigan. Later immigrants, including 80,000 Ukrainians displaced by World War II, favored the urban centers of the Northeast.

Significant Armenian immigration began in 1890, when immigrants came for economic oppor- tunity. A second wave of Armenians from Turkey who were seeking escape from persecution arrived following the two world wars. More than 60,000 Armenian refugees have come since the 1980s, settling primarily in Los Angeles, with smaller numbers joining the older American communities in Boston, New York, Detroit, Chicago, and the agricultural region of Fresno, California.

Current Demographics and Socioeconomic Status

Germans. There are more than 49 million

Americans of German heritage in the nation today, according to 2005 census estimates. Wisconsin- Minnesota-North Dakota-South Dakota-Nebraska- Iowa is considered the German belt; however, only the Pennsylvania Dutch, the rural-dwelling Germans from Russia who settled in the Midwest, and a few concentrated communities in Texas retain some aspects of their cultural heritage.44

Germans differ little from the national norms demographically, although they are slightly higher in economic achievement and are generally con- servative in attitudinal ratings. The high degree of German acculturation is attributed to their large numbers, their occupations, and the time of their arrival in the United States. Further- more, entry of the United States into World War I created a storm of anti-German feeling in America.

German-composed music was banned, German- named foods were renamed, and German books were burned. As a result, German Americans rapidly assimilated, abandoning the customs still common in other ethnic groups, such as ethnic associations and use of their oral and written language.

Poles. Polish Americans form one of the largest

ethnic groups in the United States today. In 2005 it was estimated that there were more than 9 million Americans of Polish descent; many still live in the urban areas of the Northeast and upper Midwest where their ancestors originally settled. Economi- cally, the third-generation Polish American has moved modestly upward, but the majority of Polish Americans still live just below or solidly at middle-class level. Forty-five percent of the males have white-collar jobs, and 40 percent of working Polish women are semiskilled or unskilled laborers. Poles have been active in the formation and leadership of U.S. labor unions. More recent immigrants usually possess higher occupational skills and educational backgrounds than earlier immigrants.

Other Central Europeans. There is continued

confusion over Austrian ethnicity dating back to changing national boundaries and names. It is believed that although only 781,000 Americans identify themselves as being of Austrian descent in the 2005 U.S. Census figures, as many as 4 million U.S. citizens may actually be of Austrian ancestry.25

Though early immigrants settled mostly in the Northeast, the largest populations of Austrian Americans are now found in New York, California, and Florida. At the turn of the century, Austrians were involved in clothing and tailoring, mining, and the food industry, including bakeries, meatpacking operations, and restaurants. Today, Austrians are found in a diverse range of occupations.

In the 2005 U.S. Census figures more than 1.5 million Hungarian Americans were estimated to be in the United States. Most settled originally in the Northeast, but younger generations have migrated to California and Texas, while many Hungarian retirees have moved to Florida.60

Economically, the Hungarians differ little from other central European immigrants. Most live in urban areas and work mostly in white-collar occu- pations. First- and second-generation Hungarian Americans encouraged their children to become engineers, a science that was respected by the Hungarian aristocracy at the turn of the century.

Chapter 7: Central Europeans, People of the Former Soviet Union, and Scandinavians 177

Based on 2001 census data, it is estimated that there are almost 3 million Canadians of German descent and 817,000 of Polish ancestry. In addition, 1 million Canadians list their heritage as Ukranian, and over 300,000 report Russian origins.

Seventy-three percent of the population in Switzerland speaks Swiss German, 20 percent speaks Swiss French, and 5 percent speaks Swiss Italian; in addition, most Swiss speak one or two other languages.

Poles are often stereotyped as uneducated and back- ward, and are frequently the brunt of “Polish jokes.”

Many Czech immigrants immediately Americanized their names upon arrival in the United States.39

Nearly 1,600,000 Americans of Czech descent were identified in the 2005 U.S. Census estimates. Most Czechs now live in cities or rural non-farm areas26_{and are very acculturated. Cities and states}

with large Czech populations are California, Chicago, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, New York City, Texas, and Wisconsin. Occupationally, only a small number of Czech Americans are still farmers; a majority of Czechs now hold sales, machinist, or white-collar jobs. Many Czechs have been suc- cessful in industry, founding businesses that pro- duce cigars, beer, and watches.

There are over 800,000 Americans of Slovak descent, according to the 2005 U.S. Census figures. Actual numbers may exceed 2 million when those originally misidentified as Czechoslovakian or Hungarian are included.2_{The first two generations}

of Slovaks grew up in tightly knit communities anchored by work, church, family, and social activ- ities. The third and fourth generations have sought higher education, work in white-collar jobs, and live in the suburbs; median family income is far above the national average. Cultural ties are still strong among the later generations of Slovaks.

More than 1 million citizens declared Swiss ancestry in the 2005 U.S. Census estimates. Most Swiss were multilingual and often multicultural when they arrived, assimilating quickly into American culture. The few Swiss who come to the United States today work mostly in the U.S. branches of Swiss companies.46

After arrival in the United States, Gypsies retained their reputation for roving; their exact numbers are unknown, and they are a very mobile population, often living in trailer parks. Many renovate apartments and houses to accom- modate large social gatherings, then pass the homes on to other Gypsy Americans when they move. It is estimated that approximately half live in the rural areas of the south and west, and half live in urban regions. The cities with the largest concentrations of Gypsies are Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Seattle, and Portland. Traditionally tinkers and traders, Gypsies have been very suc- cessful at independent trades, such as house painting and asphalt paving, and service work such as body-fender repair and dry cleaning. Gypsies have also entered the car dealership profession in large numbers. Women are a strong presence in the mystical arts, including fortunetelling. The Gypsies divide the urban regions of America to minimize competition between Gypsy-owned businesses.

Russians and People of the FSU. In 2005

approximately 3 million Russian Americans were living in the United States. They have mostly moved out of the inner-city settlements to the suburbs, especially in the Northeast. A 20,000-member community of Russian Molokans is in California.35

Figures from the 2005 census estimate reported 963,000 Americans of Ukrainian descent, 712,000 of Lithuanian heritage, and 421,000 of Armenian ancestry. In the past decade one-third of FSU immigrants are from Russia, one-third are from the Ukraine, and the remaining third are from all other FSU nations. These recent immigrants have settled in urban areas, including New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Detroit, and San Francisco. Today, 70 percent of Ukrainians are found in Pennsylvania, and 40 percent of Armenians are living in California.

Since World War II, the relations between the Russian-American community and American society have largely been dependent on the politi- cal relations between the United States and Russia. During the 1950s, anti-Soviet and anticommunist sentiments in the United States caused many Russian Americans to assume a low profile that hastened their acculturation. Since the bulk of Ukrainian and Lithuanian immigration occurred several generations past, most of these populations are assimilated. Armenians, who are typically well educated and English-speaking on arrival, have also found it easy to adapt to U.S. society.

Immigrants recently arriving from Russia and the FSU have come from relatively advanced educa- tional and professional backgrounds. Estimates are nearly half of Russian immigrants have a university degree. Most have professional experience, many as engineers, economists, scientists, or physicians. In addition, many Armenian Americans own their own businesses and have income levels that are well above average; however, higher than average numbers of families who have recently immigrated from Armenia fall below the poverty line.53

Worldview

Religion

Germans. The majority of German immigrants

were Lutheran; a minority were Jewish or Roman Catholic. Today the Pennsylvania Dutch and the rural Germans from Russia faithfully maintain their religious heritage.

Both groups are primarily Protestant, mostly Lutheran or Mennonite. Mennonites are a religious group derived from the Anabaptist movement, 178 CENTRAL EUROPEANS, PEOPLE OF THE FORMER SOVIET UNION, AND SCANDINAVIANS

The Amish and Mennonites are referred to as the “Plain People.” The more liberal and worldly members of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches are called the “Gay Dutch,”“Fancy Dutch,” or “Church People.” In 301 AD Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as its state religion.

which advocated baptism and church member- ship for adult believers only. They are noted for their simple lifestyle and rejection of oaths, public office, and military service. The Amish, a strict sect of the Mennonites, follow the Bible literally. They till the soil and shun worldly vanities such as electricity and automobiles. Their life centers on Gelassenheit, meaning submission to a higher authority through reserved and humble behavior, and placing the needs of others before the needs of the individual.

Poles. Most Polish immigrants were devout

Catholics; they quickly established parish churches in the United States. The Catholic Church is still a vital part of the Polish-American community, although Polish Americans have been found to marry outside the church more than other Catholics.

Central Europeans. Austrians are mostly

Roman Catholic and have been actively involved in promoting Catholicism in America. In 1829 the Leopoldine Stiftung was founded in Austria to collect money throughout Europe to introduce religion to the U.S. frontier, resulting in more than 400 Catholic churches established in the East, the Midwest, and in what was known as “Indian country.” There are also small numbers of Austrian Jews. The majority of Hungarians are Catholic, although in the United States, nearly 25 percent are Protestant.

In Europe most Czechs were Roman Catholics, but one-half to two-thirds of nineteenth century Czech immigrants from rural areas left the church and were considered free thinkers who believed in a strong separation of church and state. Subsequent generations now belong to a variety of faiths. Religion is still an important factor in the lives of Slovaks. Most are Roman Catholics who attend services regularly. First- and second- generation Slovaks usually send their children to parochial schools supported by the ethnic parish. Traditional spirituality for the Gypsies is derived from Asian Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Zoroastrianism (see Chapter 2, “Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices,” regarding eastern religions, and Chapter 14, “Asian-Indians and Pakistanis” for more information on Asian Indian faiths). While traditions and customs vary by tribe and to a cer- tain degree by the host culture, Gypsies are thought to be united in their worldview, called romaniya. Many believe in God, the devil, ghosts, and pre- destination. Most of all they adhere to the concept that persons and things are either pure or polluted.

Gypsy culture is structured to preserve purity and to avoid contamination through contact with non- Gypsies. Some Gypsy Americans are Christians, often members of fundamentalist congregations, and several churches have specifically combined Gypsy spiritual concepts with Christian practices.

Russians and People of the FSU. Except for

the Soviet Jews, the primary organization of the Russian-American community today is the Russian Orthodox Church. Religion has always played a central role in the Russian community, and the Orthodox Church has tried to preserve the culture. However, the largest branch of the Eastern church, officially known as the Orthodox Church in America (formerly the Russian Orthodox Church outside Russia), now includes people from other central European and FSU countries, and the Russian traditions have been deemphasized.

Among Ukrainian Americans, more belong to the Roman Catholic Church than to the Eastern Orthodox faith. Lithuanians are also predomi- nantly Roman Catholic; however, there are small numbers of Protestants, Jews, and Eastern Orthodox followers. Most Armenians are mem- bers of the Armenian Apostolic Church (an Eastern Orthodox faith noted for allowing its

Chapter 7: Central Europeans, People of the Former Soviet Union, and Scandinavians 179

Eastern Orthodox priest blessing the Coca-Cola plant in Moscow, 1996. © AP/ Wide W orld