The form of art is the form of the Tiki
Chapter Four continues the tataitanga korero or lineage narrative begun in Chapter Three in which Maori notions of consciousness were analysed in lineage narratives. As stated previously, the intention is to ground the thesis in cosmo-genealogy in order to invest the tataitanga korero with philosophical substance, a theoretical premise and a sense of cultural integrity; that is, to anchor some of the important philosophical notions within customary oration, narrative and ritual incantation that invest tribal visual culture of the 18th and 19th century with significance. Like Chapter Three, Chapter Four is constructed on the premise that 19th century tribal cosmo-genealogical oration, narratives and ritual incantations offer a glimpse of a 19th century worldview despite trans-cultural interventions heralded by the arrival of the settler population. It is the contention of this thesis that tribal worldviews were based on a dialectical relationship between the natural or material world occupied by humans and the supernatural or spiritual world controlled by supernatural entities including deity and other spiritual beings.
The critical aim of Chapter Four is to examine whether or not compatibility exists between notions of form and shape in 19th century tribal literature, and western art. In this respect, Chapter Four is about a tribal theory of form and the ramifications of this theory for western notions of art.
Like Chapter Three, a tataitanga reo analytical method is used in Chapter Four to differentiate between ahua and ata as corporeality and non-corporeality in the sub-section
Mai te ahua te ata. The section heading is an explicit statement of ahua as a significant concept in cosmo-genealogy predicated on its psychic extension of ata as shadow or reflection. However, ata as light is also a significant dimension in cosmo-genealogies. It is argued that an examination of lineage narratives (encompassing tribal oration, narratives and ritual incantations) demonstrate that ahua, whakaahua and hanga were most often applied to the formation or creation of deities and humans in 19th century tribal literature. It will also be demonstrated that ahua as corporeal substance is more often implicated in the generative process than ata as an extension of ahua. Under Ata, light and shape are contested through textual analysis to demonstrate that an alternative interpretation is possible when ata as shadow is substituted for ata as light. This section concludes with a contemporary re-evaluation of Te Atamai as knowing or readiness where it is argued that Te Atamai as shape offers a more significant cosmo-genealogical concept relevant to the manifestation of knowledge. An additional aim of the analysis in this section is to demonstrate the incompatibility of Western art notions for form and shape with 19th century tribal conceptualisations of ahua, and to make explicit the huna or hidden meaning in tribal narrative tradition.
Maintaining the tataitanga reo analysis the notion of tiki as the generative essence of deity is examined in the sub-section Mai te ahua ki Tikiahua. Analysis of a ritual incantation in which Tikiahua and Karihi are constructed as allegories for male and female generative organs of deity contesting rights of passage for genealogical continuity is critical to this section. The analysis extends to the relationship between gender and architectural structures including kuwaha (storehouse entrance) and waharoa (fortified fort entrance). In the sub-section Te Tatau o Te Po, this notion is examined in relation to its manifestations as marae and a house in the subterranean spiritual realm, kuwaha and waharoa where male figures predominate with the converse being true for pare (lintels).
In the consideration of Pae kura as a metaphor for a liminal zone sanctified in cosmo- genealogy, the association of females with death and de-sanctification is noted as the prevalent conceptualisation of points of entry. It is argued that too much emphasis has been placed on the co-relationship between female-gender within the context of te whare o aitua (the house of calamity or misfortune) compared to te whare tangata (the house of humanity) in which female genitalia constitute an indispensable pre-requisite for human existence. Consequently, the female is responsible for entry to and departure from the world of humankind. Hence, it is proposed that generative as opposed to de-generative signification is an equally valid interpretation for liminal zones in light of the emphasis given to paepae in karakia associated with the transition process relating to successful conception, and continuity of descendents. This notion is contextualised against the cosmo-genealogical principles of te uha (the fructifying power of conception) and ira tangata (human essence) that are inextricably tied to female existence.
In the discussion of Tikiahua a tataitanga tiki, tiki lineage, is elaborated showing the multi-facetted dimension of tiki as generative entity, deity, offspring of deity, progenitor of birds, primary ancestor, and in contemporary vernacular, a term applied to figurative carving. In this respect, tiki is at the beginning of cosmo-genealogies as a procreative force, male or female entity that creates or is created. It is proposed that tiki is a generative principle that is manifest in carving through male and female figures conjoined in coition, hierarchical arranged figures both in terms of scale and position, and primary and subsidiary figures annexed to connote kinship or spouse relationships. The notion of pae kura as a significant zone of transition associated with gender is further sanctified under kurawaka as generative essence where it is argued that chromatic signification is intrinsically connected with females. In contrast, the sacrosanct nature of biological emissions is aligned with male gender.
These cosmo-genealogical notions form the foundation for a tataitanga whakairo
analysis of a range of 18th and 19th century carvings that will be discussed in Chapter Five to demonstrate the transmutation of cosmo-genealogical notions evident in 19th century tribal carving traditions.
Mai te ahua te ata: from shape to from
In contemporary vernacular the word ahua is employed as a noun for shape and form. However, in its earlier semantic sense ahua was more often applied to corporeal form or the assumption of the qualities of corporeality. An examination of 19th century Maori texts will show that the verbs, ahua, whakaahua and hanga were most often applied to cosmo-genesis narratives describing the formation or creation of deity and humans. In these narratives form as constitutive corporeality is materialised as tangible substance. Corporeality is the physical materiality of an entity or an object that is self-evident in its actual tactile qualities. In contrast, ata is a non-corporeal entity derived from an extension of a corporeal reality through reflection or the casting of a shadow. In both cases light is a critical interacting phenomenon for the manifestation of ata and its secondary meaning as early morning light as opposed to evening light. Elsdon Besthighlights the shifting notion of ahua as both a material and immaterial qualification for form.208 However, the important aspect of ahua in the contexts in which Best uses the term is its inextricable association with a productive interaction between materiality and spirituality. That is, ahua may be something material that represents something immaterial. Therefore a carved representation of a deity is viewed as an ahua of the immaterial spirit of a deity. In this instance the carved figurative form becomes an aria, a visual material emblem for a deity whose presence is invoked through ritual intercession. A synonym for ahua is hau, a term that defines the essential character of a person. However, hau also refers to the vitality of a person, the vital essence but not the life principle, which is the mauri. Hau is the vestigial residue that remains when a person has made a foot impression in the soil, the emission of self in a strand of hair or the residue in spittle or the body emissions in clothing that have made contact with a person. This psychic extension of the person impregnated through contact with objects was employed as a material medium for affecting the course of events in counteractive or celebratory ritual action. After a successful battle strands of hair from a slain enemy became the hau or ahua for victory. In this instance, the strand of hair is the ahua, the material form to which the hau, the immaterial essence of the conquered, has adhered. While ahua may be material, hau can be an intangible quality that is invisible.
When Hinenuitepo was forewarned of Maui’s approach in the search for immortality, she sent the Tini-o-Poto to procure a portion of Maui’s blood to ensure his failure in securing immortality for humankind.209 The blood was the ahua, the material medium that contained the hau, Maui’s immaterial essence. This ritualised countermeasure to impending doom was affected by spreading Maui’s blood over the entrance to the house of Hine-nui-
208
According to Best the term ata was sometimes used to denote ‘the spirit or soul of man…ata-a-rangi was also employed in the same way, while ata-a-wai denotes a reflection on water…ata implies the essence or semblance of a thing as opposed to its real form…’ Best, E. (1995). Maori Religion and Mythology Part 2 (second edition). Wellington: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongawera. pp. 33- 4, 51-2, 175, 183, 187.
209
Smith, S. P. (1913). The Lore of the Wharewananga: Part 1. - The Kauwae-runga. New Plymouth: Thomas Avery. p. 63.
te-po thus ensuring his demise. However, like many narrative traditions the Maui narrative sustains a number of important templates for cultural practice. The demise of Maui was preordained through a hara, a ritual transgression that was performed during the dedicatory tohi ritual when Maui was a child, a reminder of the importance of correct transmission of ritual protocol. Additionally, the narrative legitimates the institution of utu by declaring that retributive action of Hinenuitepo was revenge for the mistreatment by Maui of the children of Mahuika, the fire goddess and sister of Hinenuitepo.210
Ata: shape as non-corporeal reality
When tribal cosmo-genealogical oration, narratives and ritual incantations are analysed it is apparent that the term ahua as corporeal substance is more often implicated in the creative process than ata as a non-corporeal extension of corporeal substance. However, ata as light appears in a cosmo-genealogy recorded by Reverend Richard Taylor in 1885 attributed by Best to Te Kohuora of Rongoroa in 1854 below.
Ko te rangi e tere tere ana The atmosphere which floats
I runga o te whenua above the earth;
Ka noho te rangi nui e tu nei The great firmament above us, Ka noho i a ata tuhi, ka puta dwelt with the early dawn, and
Ki waho te marama, ka noho. The moon sprung forth;
Te rangi i tu nei, ka noho i a The atmosphere above us, dwelt with
Te werowero, ka puta ki waho The heat, and thence proceeded
Ko te ra, kokiritia ana the sun; they were
Ki runga, hei pukanohi thrown above us, as the chief eyes
Mo te rangi, ka tau te of the Heaven: then the
Rangi, Te ata tuhi, te Heavens became light, the early dawn, the
Ata rapa, te ata ka early day, the mid-day.
Mahina, ka mahina
Te ata i hikurangi. The blaze of day from the sky.
Ka noho i Hawaiki, The sky above dwelt with Hawaiki, and
Ka puta ki waho ko taporapora produced land. Taporapora 211
This cosmo-genealogy is significant because Papatuanuku is absent from this version of evolutionary matter. This led Best to interpret the earth, with which the sky father Rangi mated as ‘represented by Hawaiki, the old homeland of the race, from which union sprang Taporapora, Tau-whare-nikau, Kukuparu, Wawau-atea and Whiwhi-te-rangiora, which are names of the islands of Polynesia apparently’.212
In this version ‘ata’, as a form of light, emerges as a constituent state. The passage ‘Ka noho te rangi e tu nei ka noho i a ata tuhi, ka puta ki waho ki waho te marama’ has been translated by Taylor as ‘The great firmament above us, dwelt with the early dawn, and the moon sprang forth’. The qualification of ‘ata’ with ‘tuhi’ is an important annexation. Taylor’s translation of ‘ata tuhi’ to mean ‘early dawn’ is superfluous because the word ata unqualified carries this meaning. It is probable that a more dynamic form of energy is
210
See the Ruateppupuke narrative of the origin of carving where hara and utu are examined within the context of the narrative. Mead, H. M. (1986). Te Toi Whakairo The Art of Maori Carving. Auckland: Reed. pp. 8-12.
211
Taylor, R. (1855). Te Ika a Maui, New Zealand and its Inhabitants. London: Wertheim & McKintosh. pp. 15-6.
212
Best, E. (1995). Maori Religion and Mythology Part 1 (third edition). Wellington: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongawera. p. 57.
intended. Tuhi when associated with the notion of light carries with it a sense of glowing or gleaming. It is a source of light that is intensified in brilliance when used in association with uira, lightning. However any effort to dramatise the creative process is unnecessary since tuhi also carries the meaning ‘to redden’.
For example, Anne Salmond translates the Taylor passage as ‘The great atmosphere above us stayed in red light and the moon emerged’.213 This is an appropriate translation since Salmond is obviously capitalizing on the creative significance associated with the colour red. It was the red earth at Kurawaka that conveyed the fructifying power necessary to imbue Hine-hau-one with the potential for life and the essence of ira tangata. In addition, the name Kurawaka encapsulates the notion of sacredness qualified by the colour red. Consequently, Kurawaka may be translated as the vessel that conveys the creative and sacred potentiality for existence. According to Best,
‘The origin of horu and pukepoto (red ochre and vivianite) was the blood that flowed from the arms of Papa and Rangi when they were severed by the beings who violently assaulted and separated their parents. The gleaming appearance in the heavens known as papakura is also said to have been produced by the blood of Rangi.’ 214
However, in a later passage Salmond inadvertently omits ‘Te Ata tuhi’ from the original Te Kohuora version as a sequential quantification for the intensity of the dawn light. The passage ‘Te ata tuhi, te ata rapa, te ata ka mahina, ka mahina te ata i hikurangi’ has been translated by Taylor as ‘the early dawn, the early day, the mid-day The blaze of day from the sky’.215
Williams has used the Maori passage from Taylor as an example of the use of the word ‘mahina’ as an intransitive verb for dawn.216 Additionally, hikurangi has been capitalized in the Williams passage. These changes engender a totally different reading from Taylor’s. The qualification of ‘ata’ with ‘rapa’ has the same meaning of glow that is associated with ‘tuhi’. However ‘rapa’ also means to ‘flash’, thus it is a more intensive process than ‘tuhi’, to ‘glow’, indicated previously. In this sense these adjectives quantify the energy expended in the emanation of the early morning light or the dawn light. It is like a spark or a glowing ember that ignites.
In keeping with the sense of evolution explicit in this cosmo-genealogy, Taylor has translated ata as early morning light into early day and mid-day in order to capture the shifting intensity of light embodied in the sequence. In so doing, he overlooks the elemental energy source required to produce a productive entity. This is not surprising when the translation of hikurangi as sky is considered. The key points to consider are the
213
From the source of growth [conception] the rising [swelling]… From the rising the thought… From rising thought the memory… From memory the mind… From the mind [spleen], the desire…Parenthesised terms are Salmond’s substitute translations. Salmond, A. (1985). ‘Maori Epistemologies’. In J. Overing (Ed.). Reason and Morality. London: Tavistock. p. 245.
214
Best, E. (1995). Maori Religion and Mythology Part 2 (second edition). Wellington: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongawera. p. 284.
215
Taylor, R. (1855). Te Ika a Maui, New Zealand and its Inhabitants. London: Wertheim & McKintosh. (1855). p. 15.
216
Williams, H. W. (1971). A Dictionary of Maori Language (seventh edition). Wellington: Government Printer. p. 164.
early morning light or dawn as a productive period for ritual performance and the contextualisation of Hikurangi with Hawaiki as names closely associated with Maori origin. Viewed from this perspective it is not necessary to change ‘ata’ as ‘morning light’ into the light of day. Therefore a more culturally appropriate translation could read ‘the spark of the early morning light (generates) the brilliant flash of early morning light (producing) the dawn. The early morning light (that) dawns at Hikurangi’.
Hikurangi often appears in tribal narratives as both a geographical location and as a metaphor for origin, protection, and enlightenment.217 Like Hikurangi, Hawaiki is also associated with the original homeland of the Maori. Its progressive dislocation over time and space has seen the notion of Hawaiki conceptualised in tribal narratives as the source of origin, productivity, creativity and as a synonym for Papatuanuku. In the Lore of the Whare Wananga, Hawaiki with the adjectival qualifications of rangi, nui and whakaeroero has been reconfigured as the transitory abode of the wairua, the spirit of the deceased at Te Hono-i-wairua, the gathering place of the spirits. 218
‘Hawaiki, in Maori thinking, is the place where everything began and to which we return. When we go to Tiki for our tapu to be restored we go to Tiki who was formed in Hawaiki – Ko Tiki i ahua mai i Hawaiki’.219
It is tempting to suggest that ‘te ata i [H]ikurangi’ is the shadow or shape that was produced as a result of the interaction of the early morning light with Mount Hikurangi. This would change the sense of ‘mahina’ into a poetic term for the dawning of immaterial form invested with the fructifying power from Hawaiki. This union of the creative annexation of light, earth and ‘ata’ as immaterial form, gives birth to the material form of Taporapora and the other forms of land. Although this interpretation stretches the metaphor beyond the tribal boundaries of its construction it is not an improbable reading considering the suspect nature of some of the translations provided by early writers like Smith and Taylor. In a similar fashion, Maori Marsden has not accepted White’s